And his student Diogenes of Sinop gave his life a model of a cynic sage, which served as a source for many anecdotes associated with Diogenes, which abound in the corresponding chapter in the famous book of Diogenes Laertes. It was Diogenes who brought his needs to the extreme, tempered himself by putting his body to the test. For example, in summer he lay down on hot sand, in winter he hugged statues covered with snow. He lived in a large clay round barrel (pithos). Seeing one boy drinking water from a handful, and another eating lentil stew from a piece of eaten bread, Diogenes threw away both the cup and the bowl. He accustomed himself not only to physical deprivation, but also to moral humiliation. He begged from the statues in order to accustom himself to refusals, because people give to the lame and the poor and do not give to philosophers, because they know that they can still become lame and beggars, but never wise men. Diogenes brought his teacher Antisthenes' contempt for pleasure to its apogee. He said that he "would prefer madness to pleasure." Diogenes found pleasure in the very contempt for pleasure. He taught the poor and downtrodden to contrast the contempt of the rich and noble with contempt for what they valued, and yet he did not urge them to follow his way of life with its extremes and extravagances. But only an excessive example can teach people to observe the measure. He said that he takes an example from singing teachers who deliberately sing in a higher tone so that the students understand what tone they themselves should sing in.
Diogenes in his barrel. Painting by J. L. Gerome, 1860
Diogenes himself, in his simplification, reached complete shamelessness, he challenged society, refusing to observe all the rules of decency, thereby incurring a hail of ridicule and provocative antics, to which he always answered with extraordinary resourcefulness and accuracy, embarrassing those who wanted to embarrass him . When bones were thrown at him, who called himself a dog, at one dinner, he went up to them and urinated on them. To the question: if he is a dog, what breed? - Diogenes calmly replied that when he was hungry, he was of the Maltese breed (i.e., affectionate), and when full, then Milo (i.e., fierce).
With his outrageous behavior, Diogenes emphasized the superiority of the sage over ordinary people, who deserve only contempt. Once he began to call people, and when they ran away, he attacked them with a stick, saying that he called people, not scoundrels. On another occasion, in daylight, he searched for a man with a lit lantern. In fact, the so-called people compete to see who will push whom into the ditch (a type of competition), but no one competes in the art of being beautiful and kind. In his contempt for people, Diogenes made no exception for priests or kings. When Alexander the Great once approached him and said: “I am the great Tsar Alexander,” Diogenes, not in the least embarrassed, replied: “And I am the dog Diogenes.” When another time Alexander the Great, approaching Diogenes, who was basking in the sun, suggested that he ask him what he wants, Diogenes answered: “Do not block the sun for me.” All this allegedly made such a great impression on the Macedonian king that he said that if he were not Alexander the king, he would like to be Diogenes.
Alexander the Great pays homage to Diogenes. Painting by J. Regnault
Having become a slave of a certain Xeniades (Diogenes was captured by pirates and sold into slavery), the philosopher applied an excellent system of education to the children of his master, accustoming them to modest food and water, to simplicity in clothes, studying with them and exercise, but only as much as it is necessary for health; he taught them knowledge, giving them the initial information in a short form for easy memorization and accustoming them to learn by heart pieces from the works of poets, mentors and Diogenes himself. Slavery did not humiliate Diogenes. Refusing to be redeemed from slavery by his students, he wanted to show that the cynic philosopher, even being a slave, can become the master of his master - the slave of his passions and public opinion. When he was being sold in Crete, he asked the herald to announce if anyone wanted to buy a master for himself.
Diogenes placed philosophy above all forms of culture. He himself possessed an amazing power of persuasion, no one could resist his arguments. However, in philosophy, Diogenes recognized only its moral and practical side. He philosophized with his way of life, which he considered the best, freeing a person from all conventions, attachments, and even from almost all needs. To a man who said that he did not care about philosophy, Diogenes objected: “Why do you live if you do not care to live well?” In turning philosophy into a practical science, Diogenes surpassed Antisthenes. If philosophy gave Antisthenes, in his words, "the ability to talk with oneself", then philosophy gave Diogenes "at least readiness for any turn of fate."
At the same time, Diogenes was interested in theoretical philosophy and expressed his negative attitude towards both Plato's idealism and Zeno's metaphysics (as anti-dialectics), both in words and actions. When someone argued that movement does not exist, Diogenes got up and began to walk. When Plato was talking about ideas, coming up with names for “stolnost” and “chalice”, Diogenes said that he sees the table and the bowl, but he does not see the stolnost and the cup. Diogenes systematically mocked Plato, calling his eloquence empty talk, reproaching him for vanity and for groveling before the powerful of this world. For his part, Plato, who did not love Diogenes, called him a dog, accused him of vanity and lack of reason. When Diogenes stood naked in the rain, Plato said to those who wanted to take the cynic away: “If you want to have pity on him, step aside,” meaning his vanity. (In the same way, Socrates once said to Antisthenes, who was showing off a hole in his cloak: “Your vanity peeps through this cloak!”) and a cup, you have eyes, but to see the stature and the cup, you have no mind. Plato called Diogenes "the mad Socrates".
Rejecting all kinds of social inequality between people, without denying, however, slavery, ridiculing noble origin, fame, wealth, Diogenes denied both the family and the state. He considered the whole world to be the only true state and called himself a "citizen of the world." He said that wives should be common. When a certain tyrant asked him what kind of copper is best suited for statues, Diogenes replied: “The one from which Harmodius and Aristogeiton are cast” (the famous Athenian tyrannicides). Diogenes died at ninety, holding his breath. A dog was depicted on his grave monument. His writings have not come down to us.
How collective image cynic Diogenes bred from Lucian. There, Diogenes says to his interlocutor: “You see before you a cosmopolitan, a citizen of the world... I am at war... against pleasures... I am the liberator of mankind and the enemy of passions... I want to be a prophet of truth and freedom of speech.” Further, it is said what will happen to his interlocutor, as soon as he wants to be a cynic: “First of all, I will take off your effeminacy ... I make you work, sleep on bare ground, drink water and eat anything. You will throw your riches into the sea. You will not care about marriage, or children, or the fatherland ... Let your knapsack be full of beans and bundles written on both sides. Leading such a way of life, you will call yourself happier than a great king ... wipe the ability to blush forever from your face ... In front of everyone, boldly do what another would not do on the sidelines.
Diogenes was born in 412 BC. in the Greek colony of Sinop on the southern coast of the Black Sea. Information about his early years has not come down to us. It is only known for certain that his father, Gicesius, was a repast. Apparently, Diogenes helped his father in banking. The story describes a case when a father and son bring trouble upon themselves, being convicted of falsification, or forgery of coins. As a result, Diogenes is expelled from the city. This story is confirmed by archaeological evidence in the form of several counterfeit coins with a stamped stamp found in Sinop and dated to the 4th century BC. BC. There are also other coins of the same period engraved with the name of Hytsesius as the person who put them into circulation. The reasons for this incident remain unclear to this day, however, given that in the 4th century clashes between pro-Persian and pro-Greek groups took place in Sinop, this act could have political motives. There is another version of this event, according to which Diogenes goes for advice to the oracle from Delphi, receiving in response a prophecy about a "turn in the course", and Diogenes understands that this is not about the course of coins, but about a change in political direction. And then he goes to Athens, ready to challenge the existing values and way of life.
In Athens
Upon arrival in Athens, Diogenes aims at the metaphorical destruction of the "chased" foundations. The destruction of generally accepted values and traditions becomes the main goal of his life. The people of antiquity, without thinking about the true nature of evil, limply rely on the established ideas about it. This distinction between essence and habitual images is one of the favorite themes of the Greek philosophy of the ancient world. There is evidence that Diogenes arrived in Athens accompanied by a slave named Manes, who, however, soon escapes from him. With a natural sense of humor, Diogenes brushes off his failure with the words: "If Manes can live without Diogenes, why shouldn't Diogenes live without Manes?" About these relations, in which one is completely dependent on the other, the philosopher will joke more than once. Diogenes is literally fascinated by the ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, a student of Socrates. And therefore, despite all the difficulties that he has to face at the beginning, Diogenes becomes a faithful follower of Antisthenes. Whether these two philosophers actually met or not remains unclear, but Diogenes soon surpasses Antisthenes in both the reputation he won and the severity of his lifestyle. Diogenes puts his voluntary renunciation of earthly goods in opposition to the mores of the Athenians that existed at that time. And these views lead him to a deep rejection of all stupidity, pretense, vanity, self-deception and falsity of human behavior.
According to the rumors surrounding his life, this is the enviable constancy of his character. Diogenes successfully adapts to any changes in the weather, living in a tub near the temple of Cybele. Seeing once a peasant boy drinking from folded palms, the philosopher breaks his only wooden bowl. In Athens at that time it was not customary to eat in the marketplaces, but Diogenes ate stubbornly, proving that every time he was in the market he wanted to eat. Another oddity of his behavior was that, in broad daylight, he always walked with a lit lamp. When asked why he needed a lamp, he replied: "I'm looking for an honest man." He was constantly looking for humanity in people, but more often he came across only swindlers and rogues. When Plato, echoing Socrates, called a man “a featherless two-legged animal”, for which everyone around lavished praise on him, Diogenes brought him a chicken and said: “Look! I brought you a man." After this incident, Plato revised the definition and added the characteristic “with wide flat nails” to it.
In Corinth
According to the testimony of Menippus of Gadara, Diogenes once sailed to the shores of Aegina, during which he was captured by pirates who sold the philosopher into slavery to a Corinthian from Crete named Xeniades. When Diogenes was asked about his craft, he replied that he knew no other craft than to guide people on the true path, and that he wanted to be sold to someone who himself needed a master. The philosopher will spend his entire subsequent life in Corinth, becoming the mentor of the two sons of Xeniad. He devotes his entire life to preaching the doctrines of chaste self-control. There is a version according to which he conveyed his views to a wide audience, speaking to the public at the Isthmian Games.
Relationship with Alexander
Already in Corinth, Diogenes meets with Alexander the Great. According to Plutarch and Diogenes Laertes, the two exchanged only a few words. One morning, while Diogenes was resting in the sun, he was disturbed to be introduced to the famous philosopher, Alexander. When asked if he was pleased with such an honor, Diogenes replied: “Yes, only you block the sun for me,” to which Alexander said: “If I were not Alexander, I would wish to be Diogenes.” There is another story, according to which Alexander found Diogenes contemplating a pile of human bones. Diogenes explained his occupation as follows: “I am looking for the bones of your father, but I just can’t distinguish them from slave ones.”
Death
Diogenes died in 323 BC. There have been many versions of his death. Someone believes that he died while practicing holding his breath, someone believes that he was poisoned by a raw octopus, and some are of the opinion that he died from the bite of a sick dog. When the philosopher was asked how he wanted to be buried, he always replied that he would like to be thrown outside the city wall so that wild animals feast over his body. In response to whether he himself would not be afraid of this, he answered: “Not at all, if you provide me with a stick.” To all the astonished remarks about how he could use a stick when he was unconscious, Diogenes said: “Why should I worry, then, when I still have no consciousness?” Already in the later period of his life, Diogenes will make fun of the excessive interest shown by people in the "proper" treatment of the dead. In memory of him, the Corinthians erected a column of Parian marble, on which, curled up, a dog sleeps.
Rise of Cynicism
Diogenes of Sinop became a symbol of the Cynic movement. Diogenes was an older contemporary of Alexander. One source says that he died in Corinth on the same day as Alexander in Babylon.
Diogenes surpassed the glory of his teacher Antisthenes. This was a young man from Sinope on Euxine, whom Antisthenes disliked at first sight; he was the son of a money changer with a dubious reputation, who was in prison for defacing a coin. Antisthenes drove the young man away, but he paid no attention to it. Antisthenes beat him with a stick, but he did not budge. He needed "wisdom", and he believed that Antisthenes should give it to him. His goal in life was to do what his father did - to "spoil the coin", but on a much larger scale. He would like to spoil all the "coin" available in the world. Any accepted stamp is false, false. People with the stamp of commanders and kings, things with the stamp of honor and wisdom, happiness and wealth - all these were base metals with a false inscription.
Diogenes decided to live like a dog, and therefore he was called "cynic", which means canine (another version of the origin of the school's name). He rejected all conventions relating to religion, and manners, and clothing, and housing, and food, and decency. They say that he lived in a barrel, but Gilbert Murray assures that this is a mistake: it was a huge jug, which was used in primitive times for burials. He lived, like an Indian fakir, by alms. He declares his brotherhood not only with the whole human race, but also with the animals. He was a man whose stories were collected during his lifetime. It is widely known that Alexander visited him and asked him if he wanted any mercy. "Just don't block the light for me," Diogenes replied.
Diogenes' teaching was by no means what we now call "cynical", quite the contrary. He ardently strove for "virtue", in comparison with which, as he argued, all earthly goods are worth nothing. He sought virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire: be indifferent to the blessings that fortune has bestowed on you, and you will be free from fear. Diogenes believed that Prometheus was justly punished for bringing art to man, which gave rise to the complexity and artificiality of modern life.
Diogenes not only strengthened the extremism of Antisthenes, but created a new ideal of life of extraordinary severity, which became paradigmatic for centuries.
One phrase can express the entire program of this philosopher: "I am looking for a man," which he repeated with a lantern in his hands among the crowd and in broad daylight, provoking an ironic reaction. I am looking for a person who lives in accordance with his destiny. I am looking for a person who is above everything external, above social prejudices, above even the vagaries of fate, knows and knows how to find his own and unique nature, with which he agrees, which means he is happy.
"Cynic Diogenes," an ancient source testifies, "repeated that the gods gave people the means of subsistence, but they were mistaken about these people." Diogenes saw his task in showing that a person always has everything at his disposal to be happy if he understands the requirements of his nature.
In this context, his statements about the uselessness of mathematics, physics, astronomy, music, and the absurdity of metaphysical constructions are understandable. Cynicism has become the most anti-cultural phenomenon of all the philosophical currents of Greece and the West in general. One of the most extreme conclusions was that the most essential needs of man are animals.
Only the one who is free from the greatest number of needs is free. The Cynics tirelessly insisted on freedom, losing their measure. In the face of the omnipotent, they were on the verge of recklessness in upholding freedom of speech" parrhesia". "Anaideia", freedom of action, was intended to show all the unnatural behavior of the Greeks. In one luxurious house, in response to a request to keep order, Diogenes spat in the face of the owner, noting that he had not seen a worse place.
The method and path leading to freedom and virtues, Diogenes designates with the concepts - "austerity", "effort", "hard work". Training the soul and body to be ready to withstand the adversities of the elements, the ability to dominate lusts, moreover, contempt for pleasures are the fundamental values of the Cynics, for pleasures not only relax the body and soul, but seriously threaten freedom, making a person a slave to his affections. For the same reason, marriage was also condemned in favor of the free cohabitation of a man and a woman. However, the Cynic is also outside the state, his fatherland is the whole world. "Autarky", i.e. self-sufficiency, apathy and indifference to everything are the ideals of Cynic life.
Many of our contemporaries remember Diogenes in the first place that he lived in a barrel. In fact, this is far from being a “city madman”: Diogenes of Sinop is a famous ancient Greek philosopher, a prominent representative of the Cynic school, a student of Antisthenes, who continued to develop his teachings. The main source of information about the biography of Diogenes is another Diogenes - Laertes, who wrote a treatise "On the life, teachings and sayings of famous philosophers." Now it is difficult to assess the reliability of the data contained in it - as well as other information about this philosopher.
Diogenes of Sinop was born around 412 BC. e. (dates differ in different sources) in Sinop, in the family of a noble and wealthy banker Gikesias. In his youth, he became an exile: the townspeople expelled him because he helped his father make counterfeit money in his chased workshop. According to one legend, Diogenes, who was in doubt, sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo, going to Delphi. Diogenes took the advice to “do a reassessment of values” as an indication of the admissibility of what the father suggested. According to another version, Diogenes ended up in Delphi after his exposure and flight with his father and did not try to resolve doubts, but asked about the paths to fame. Having received the above advice, the future philosopher turned into a wanderer and traveled a lot in his country. Around 355-350 BC. e. he ended up in the capital, where he joined the students of the philosopher Antisthenes, who founded the school of cynics. In Diogenes Laertes one can find information about 14 philosophical and ethical works of Diogenes of Sinop, which gave an idea of the system of views of their writer. In addition, he is considered the author of seven tragedies.
The views of this ancient Greek philosopher, his way of life, demeanor in the eyes of other people were very original and even shocking. The only thing that Diogenes recognized was ascetic virtue, which is based on the imitation of nature. It is in it, its achievement, that the only goal of man lies, and the path to it lies through work, exercises and reason. Diogenes called himself a citizen of the world, advocated that children and wives be common, spoke of the relativity of authorities, including in the field of philosophy. For example, in the famous Plato, he saw a talker. He also considered the state, social laws, and religious institutions to be the brainchild of demagogues. The primitive society seemed ideal to him with its simple, natural mores, not disfigured by civilization and culture. At the same time, he believed that people needed philosophy - as a doctor or a helmsman. Diogenes showed complete indifference to public life, to everything that ordinary people considered to be goods and moral norms. As a dwelling, he chose a voluminous vessel for storing wine, wore rags, publicly attended to the most intimate needs, communicated with people rudely and straightforwardly, regardless of faces, for which he received the nickname “Dog” from the townspeople.
Habits, ways of expressing a negative attitude towards society and morality, the statements of Diogenes, most likely, were subsequently exaggerated, and today no one can say what is true in numerous anecdotes and stories about Diogenes, and what is myth, fiction. Be that as it may, Diogenes of Sinop is one of the brightest representatives of the ancient era, and his views had a noticeable influence on later philosophical concepts.
Legend has it that Diogenes lost his life voluntarily by holding his breath. It happened in Corinth on June 10, 323 BC. e. A marble monument depicting a dog was erected on the grave of the original philosopher.
Name: Diogenes (Diogenes)
Date of Birth: 412 BC e.
Age: 89 years old
Date of death: 323 BC e.
Activity: ancient philosopher
Family status: not married
Diogenes: biography
Antiquity is considered fertile ground for the emergence of schools of philosophy - humanity has already made a cultural leap and expanded the horizons of knowledge, which, in turn, gave rise to even more questions. Then the doctrine was formulated, supplemented and revised by his illustrious disciple. This teaching has become a classic, so it remains relevant to this day.
Ancient philosophers in Raphael's "School of Athens" But there were others philosophical schools, for example, the school of cynics, founded by another student of Socrates - Antisthenes. A prominent representative of this trend is Diogenes of Sinop, who became famous for his eternal disputes with Plato, as well as outrageous (sometimes even vulgar) antics.
Childhood and youth
Little is known about the life of Diogenes, and the surviving information is controversial. What is known about the biography of the philosopher fit into one chapter of the book of his namesake, the late antique scientist and bibliographer Diogenes Laertes "On the life, teachings and sayings of famous philosophers."
According to the book, the ancient Greek philosopher was born in 412 BC, in the city of Sinop (hence the nickname), located on the Black Sea coast. Nothing is known about Diogenes' mother. The boy's father, Hykesius, worked as a repast - so in Ancient Greece they called money changers and usurers.
Diogenes' childhood passed in turbulent times - conflicts between pro-Greek and pro-Persian groups constantly flared up in his native city. Due to the difficult social situation, Hykesias began to forge coins, but the trapezit was quickly caught red-handed. Diogenes, who was also about to be arrested and punished, managed to escape the city. And so the journey of the guy began, which led him to Delphi.
In Delphi, tired and exhausted, Diogenes turned to the local oracle with the question of what to do next. The answer, as expected, was vague: “Engage in revisiting values and priorities.” At that moment, Diogenes did not understand these words, so he did not attach any importance to them and went on wandering.
Philosophy
The road led Diogenes to Athens, where he encountered the philosopher Antisthenes in the city square. It is not known how their acquaintance took place, but Antisthenes struck Diogenes to the core, and Diogenes aroused a feeling of hostility in Antisthenes. Then Diogenes decided to stay in Athens to become a student of the philosopher.
Diogenes had no money (according to some sources, his friend Manes stole it, with whom Diogenes arrived in Athens), so he could not afford to buy a house or at least rent a room. But this did not become a problem for the future philosopher: Diogenes dug in next to the temple of Cybele (not far from the Athenian agora - the central square) pithos - a large clay barrel in which the Greeks stored food so that they would not be lost (ancient version of the refrigerator). Diogenes began to live in a barrel (pithos), which served as the basis for the expression "Diogenes' barrel".
Although not immediately, Diogenes managed to become a student of Antisthenes - the elderly philosopher could not get rid of the stubborn student even with the help of a beating with a stick. As a result, it was this student who glorified Cynicism as a school of ancient philosophy.
Diogenes' philosophy was based on asceticism, the rejection of all the blessings of beings, and also the imitation of nature. Diogenes did not recognize states, politicians, religions and clergy (an echo of communication with the Delphic oracle), and considered himself a cosmopolitan - a citizen of the world.
After the death of the teacher, the affairs of Diogenes became very bad, the townspeople believed that he had lost his mind, as evidenced by regular antics. It is known that Diogenes publicly engaged in masturbation, declaring that it would be great if hunger could be quenched by stroking his stomach.
During a conversation with the philosopher, he called himself a dog, but this is how Diogenes called himself before. Once, several townspeople threw him a bone like a dog and wanted to force him to gnaw it. However, they could not predict the result - like a dog, Diogenes took revenge on bullies and offenders by urinating on them.
There were also less extravagant performances. Seeing an inept archer, Diogenes sat down near the target, saying that this was the safest place. I stood naked in the rain. When the townspeople tried to take Diogenes under a canopy, Plato said that it was not worth it: best help the vanity of Diogenes will manifest itself in not touching him.
Nude Diogenes The history of disagreements between Plato and Diogenes is interesting, but Diogenes only once managed to really beautifully beat his opponent - this is the case with Plato's man and the plucked chicken. In other cases, the victory remained with Plato. Modern scholars are of the opinion that the native of Sinop was simply jealous of his more successful opponent.
It is also known about the conflict with other philosophers, including Anaximenes of Lampsakus and Aristippus. Between skirmishes with competitors, Diogenes continued to play weird and answer people's questions. One of the philosopher's eccentricities gave a name to another popular expression- Lantern of Diogenes. The philosopher walked around the square with a lantern during the day, exclaiming: "I am looking for a man."
Thus, he expressed his attitude towards the people around him. About the inhabitants of Athens, Diogenes often spoke unflatteringly. One day the philosopher started to lecture in the marketplace, but no one listened to him. Then he squealed like a bird, and a crowd immediately gathered around him.
“This is the level of your development,” Diogenes said, “when I said smart things, they ignored me, but when I squealed like a rooster, everyone began to watch with interest.”
When the military conflict of the Greeks with the Macedonian king Philip II began, Diogenes left Athens, going by ship to the shores of Aegina. However, it was not possible to get there - the ship was captured by pirates, and everyone on it was either killed or captured.
From captivity, Diogenes was sent to the slave market, where he was acquired by the Corinthian Xeanides in order for the philosopher to teach his children. It is worth noting that Diogenes was a good teacher - in addition to riding, throwing darts, history and Greek literature, the philosopher taught the children of Xeanides to eat and dress modestly, as well as exercise to maintain their physical shape and health.
Students and acquaintances offered the philosopher to redeem him from slavery, but he refused, arguing that this supposedly illustrates the fact that even in slavery he can be "the master of his master." In fact, Diogenes was happy to have a roof over his head and regular meals.
The philosopher died on June 10, 323, being a slave to Xeanid. They buried Diogenes face down - as requested. On his grave, in Corinth, there is a tombstone made of Parian marble with words of gratitude from the disciples and wishes of eternal glory. Also, a dog was made of marble, symbolizing the life of Diogenes.
Diogenes introduced himself as a dog to Alexander the Great when the Macedonian king decided to get acquainted with the famous marginal philosopher. To Alexander's question: "Why a dog?" Diogenes answered simply: “Whoever throws a piece, I wag him; To a playful question about the breed of a dog, the philosopher also answered without being wiser: "When hungry - Maltese (i.e. affectionate), when full - Milo (i.e. evil)".
Personal life
Diogenes denied the family and the state, arguing that children and wives are common, and there are no borders between countries. Based on this, it is difficult to establish the biological children of the philosopher.
Compositions
According to Diogenes Laertes, the philosopher from Sinop left behind 14 philosophical works and 2 tragedies (in some sources, the number of tragedies increases up to 7). Most of them have survived thanks to other writers and philosophers who use the sayings and sayings of Diogenes.
The surviving writings include "On Wealth", "On Virtue", "The Athenian People", "The Science of Morality" and "On Death", and among the tragedies - "Hercules" and "Helen".
Quotes
- “Poverty itself paves the way to philosophy. What philosophy tries to convince in words, poverty forces to carry out in practice.
- "Philosophy and medicine have made man the most intelligent of animals, divination and astrology the most insane, superstition and despotism the most unfortunate."
- "Treat dignitaries like fire: do not stand either very close or very far from them."