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Basic methods and tools of state regulation of foreign economic activity.


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State regulation methods foreign economic activity

1. CONTENT
INTRODUCTION 3
FOREIGN ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT BODIES
ACTIVITIES 5
METHODS OF STATE REGULATION
FOREIGN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 8
2.1 Customs tariff methods 8
2.2. Non-tariff methods of regulation 11
3. COMPETITIVENESS OF THE PRODUCT 17
3.1. Assessment of the competitiveness of the object 18

REFERENCES 20
INTRODUCTION
The transition to a market economy in Russia has led to its openness to the outside world, including the removal of restrictions on foreign economic activity. The main goals of the foreign economic activity reform are:
- the abolition of the state monopoly on foreign trade and the transition to economic methods of its regulation;
- ensuring the gradual convertibility of the ruble;
- convergence of the structure of domestic and world prices, a consistent reduction in export tariff rates and the introduction of an import tariff;
export support and expansion of markets for Russian products.
The beginning of the formation of a mechanism for managing foreign economic activity, adequate to market relations, is associated with the Decree of the President of the RSFSR "On the liberalization of foreign economic activity on the territory of the RSFSR" dated November 15, 1991 No. 213. In accordance with this document, economic entities of all forms of ownership were allowed to carry out foreign economic activity and open foreign currency accounts, i.e., the state monopoly on foreign trade in most goods was abolished. Analyzing the liberalization of foreign economic activity for 1991 - 1996, several stages can be distinguished:
1st: end of 1991 - beginning of 1992 Restrictions on the export of finished products were removed, any restrictions on imports were canceled, the exchange rate was partially liberalized;
2nd: second half of 1992. The exchange rate was fully liberalized, obligatory sale by exporters of 50 percent of foreign exchange earnings was introduced, an import tariff was established, a licensing and quota system was introduced to tighten control over the export of raw materials;
3rd: 1993-1994 The transition to tariff methods of regulation was completed - the Law of the Russian Federation "On Customs Tariff" and the Customs Code of the Russian Federation were adopted, quotas and licensing of goods and services for export were canceled, with the exception of those exported in accordance with the international obligations of the Russian Federation. Changes in foreign economic activity had both a positive and a negative impact on the formation of the transition economy mechanism. Relaxing government controls on exports to initial period The liberalization of foreign economic activity led to the export of raw materials, destabilization of world prices, the outflow of foreign exchange funds abroad and the loss of a significant share of the domestic market by domestic producers. Therefore, the next stage of the liberalization of foreign economic activity in Russia should have been linked to the creation of a system of measures to protect national production and develop industrial exports in accordance with the principles of the World Trade Organization (WTO), with which accession negotiations are underway;
4th: 1995 marked the beginning of a qualitatively new stage in the liberalization of foreign economic activity. In order to combine currency and customs control, an exporter's transaction passport was introduced, signed and entered into force. The federal law "On the state regulation of foreign trade activities", developed taking into account the principles of the WTO, an agreement was signed on the creation of the Customs Union of the CIS states;
5th: 1996 In order to create a unified system of control over export-import transactions, an importer's transaction passport and a barter transaction passport were introduced, based on Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of January 20, 1996 No. 53 "On additional support for domestic exports of goods and services "The Federal Program for the Development of Exports has been developed, which provides for stimulation, crediting and insurance of exports, and tax incentives.
Having received real rights to enter the foreign market, the enterprise can determine for itself the feasibility of implementing one or more types of foreign economic activity.
Foreign economic activity is entrepreneurial activity legal entities and individuals in the field of international exchange of goods, services, movement of material, financial and intellectual resources (Fig. 1).

Fig.1. Types of foreign economic activity
1. GOVERNING BODIES FOR FOREIGN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
The transition to a market economy in Russia has led to its openness to the outside world, including the removal of restrictions on foreign economic activity. The main goals of the reform of foreign economic activity are: the abolition of the state monopoly on foreign trade and the transition to economic methods of its regulation; ensuring the gradual convertibility of the ruble; convergence of the structure of domestic and world prices, a consistent reduction in export tariff rates and the introduction of an import tariff.
Foreign economic relations need to be regulated by the state. In a centralized economy, foreign economic activity is subject to particularly strict influence and control of state bodies, there is a state monopoly of foreign trade, the violation of which is considered a criminal offense. But even in countries with a market economy, state regulation of foreign economic relations is manifested in a tangible way. The external economic function of the state is a continuation of its internal economic function, but is implemented in a slightly different form.
The main purpose of state intervention in foreign economic activity is to ensure the economic and political interests of the country. At the same time, the state itself tends to take upon itself the implementation of a number of types of foreign economic activities that generate income and require state participation.
In modern conditions, any state in one way or another regulates, stimulates or limits almost all spheres of international economic relations. State regulation extends to foreign trade, international movement of capital, currency and credit relations, scientific and technical exchange, international movement of labor.
To enter a foreign market, an enterprise needs to know organizations that can provide real help at the first, most difficult stages.
The current structure of the FEA management body reflects the changes that have taken place as a result of the liberalization of the economy and the development of a new foreign economic policy in Russia. In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the management of foreign economic activity within the framework of foreign economic policy is carried out by the President of the Russian Federation, and the execution is carried out by the Government of the Russian Federation. The federal structure of Russia involves the distribution of powers between central and local bodies, ensuring the unity and integrity of foreign economic policy.
The federal level of management of foreign economic activity is provided by the central executive authorities (Fig. 2.).

Fig. 2. Management structure of foreign economic activity of the Russian Federation.
The Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations of the Russian Federation (MFER) participates in the formation of foreign economic policy and control over its implementation, the development of a mechanism for regulating currency and credit relations with foreign states, prepares proposals for the conclusion of international agreements, ensures their implementation, carries out operational non-tariff regulation of foreign economic activity: issues in in accordance with the established procedure, licenses for the export and import of goods, controls the export of goods in respect of which measures are not applied tariff regulation, and etc.
The Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation develops an economic and foreign economic strategy and forms a mechanism for its implementation: attracting foreign investment, implementing joint programs and projects, using foreign loans, participating in the establishment of export and import duties, etc.
The Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation manages the country's foreign exchange reserves.
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation exercises currency control and determines the rules for currency transactions.
The State Customs Committee (SCC) of the Russian Federation participates in the development and implementation of the customs policy of Russia: it develops customs duty rates, a commodity nomenclature for foreign economic activity, organizes the work of customs authorities, collects customs duties, carries out customs clearance, etc.
Federal Service for Currency and export control The Russian Federation coordinates cross-industry issues of control over foreign economic activity: supervision of the order of quotas and licensing, receipt of proceeds from foreign exchange transactions, auditing of foreign economic activity participants.
Vnesheconombank keeps records of assets and liabilities of all external and internal debts of Russia and carries out their restructuring, is engaged in strengthening the discipline of international settlements.
The Russian Export-Import Bank is an agent bank of the Government of the Russian Federation and performs the functions of export financing.
Representative offices of the Russian Federation on trade and economic issues carry out work on the implementation of foreign economic policy in host countries, study general economic conditions, plans, programs, market conditions, issue permits for the transit of goods through the territory of Russia, certificates of origin of goods.
Regional level of foreign trade management. In accordance with the legislation, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation - republics, territories, regions - can carry out foreign economic activity within their competence: form and implement foreign economic activity programs, provide additional financial guarantees to foreign economic activity participants at the expense of regional budgets, create insurance funds. MINFER, in accordance with the Regulations on authorized representatives, MINFER of the Russian Federation delegates part of its rights to local authorized representatives. In large administrative regions, departments of international and foreign economic relations have been established under the heads of local administrations. An example of the implementation of such rights is the creation of a free economic zone in the Kaliningrad region, the Ingushetia International Business Center.
2. METHODS OF STATE REGULATION OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

Applied to international trade as the main object of regulation, governments use such tools and methods of influence as customs tariffs, taxes, restrictive conditions, interstate treaties and agreements, measures to stimulate exports and imports.
From history, two main directions of the foreign economic policy of the government are known - protectionism and free trade.
Free trade is a policy of free trade, in which the customs authorities perform only registration functions, export or import duties are not levied, and no restrictions are placed on foreign trade turnover. The principle of free trade was the official economic policy of England in the 19th century, and it was based on the theory of comparative costs of D. Ricardo. Such a policy can be pursued by a country with a highly efficient national economy, in which local entrepreneurs are able to withstand foreign competition and actively penetrate the world market.
The policy of protectionism is aimed at protecting our own industry and agriculture from foreign competition in the domestic market. Protectionism is characterized by high customs tariffs and restrictions on imports.
2.1 Customs tariff methods

Customs tariff methods are aimed at regulating export and import operations to protect the domestic market and stimulate structural changes in the Russian economy and are based on the Customs Code of the Russian Federation and the Law of the Russian Federation "On Customs Tariff".
A customs tariff is a systematized collection of customs duty rates that are levied on goods imported into or exported from a country. Customs tariffs give an idea of ​​how the state influences exports and imports, facilitating or hindering the import and export of goods. This one of the oldest and most important instruments of foreign economic regulation performs the following functions:
fiscal, i.e., provides replenishment of the revenue side of the budget;
protective, i.e. protects the national economy from excessive competition;
regulating, that is, it influences the formation of the structure of production, encouraging the development of some industries and restraining others.
Russia uses an import and export tariff, while the latter is not applied in the developed world. The export tariff in Russia was introduced from January 1, 1992 as a temporary measure due to a significant gap between domestic and world prices for a number of goods: gas, oil, fuel oil, timber and lumber, etc.

Rice. 3. Classification of customs duty rates
The customs tariff is differentiated in accordance with the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity (TN VED), which is based on a harmonized system for describing and coding goods - the international commodity-statistical nomenclature. The Russian TN VED is still imperfect and requires in-depth differentiation, taking into account the state and prospects of production and foreign trade.
The import customs tariff of the Russian Federation provides for 3 levels of customs duty rates:
basic - for goods originating from countries or economic groupings with which trade agreements and agreements have been concluded providing for the mutual granting of the most favored nation (MFN) regime, which include Austria, Great Britain, Greece, France and other EU countries (total 125 countries );
maximum - for goods originating from countries or economic groupings with which there is no MFN regime (for example, Estonia), and goods whose country of origin has not been established. These rates are 2 times the size of the base rates;
the minimum - for goods from developing countries (Albania, Brazil, Vietnam, Turkey, etc. - a total of 103 countries). Since May 15, 1996, these rates have been 75% of the base rates.
In addition, in accordance with the tariff preferences that Russia can provide to foreign states, duty-free importation of goods from the least developed countries - Afghanistan, Benin, Mali, Ethiopia, etc. (47 countries in total), and from the CIS countries - members of the Customs Union.
In September 1993, the CIS countries signed an agreement on the Economic Union, which provided for the creation of free trade associations, then the Customs Union and, finally, a common market. Currently, the process of formation of the Customs Union is underway - an association of countries pursuing a single foreign economic policy, with a single customs tariff in trade with third countries. The Customs Union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan is already in operation. There is no customs control on the Russian-Belarusian border; on the Russian-Kazakh border, this control is maintained on the Russian side for goods from third countries.
Customs authorities must submit a certificate of origin of goods when importing goods from countries subject to preferences and quantitative restrictions (quotas) into the territory of the Russian Federation. The criteria and features for determining the country of origin of goods are established by the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Customs Tariff".
The amount of the ad valorem customs duty payable is determined, as indicated, as a percentage of the customs value of the goods. The legislation provides for 6 methods for determining the customs value. The most common is the first method of assessment (the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Customs Tariff") at the transaction price of the imported goods. In practice, the customs value is the value indicated on the invoice:
TP \u003d TS x P / 100,
where TP is the amount of customs duty, rub.;

P is the rate of customs duty, %.
Since February 1, 1993, all goods imported into Russia, with certain exceptions, are subject to value added tax (VAT) and excises.
Excises are levied on a certain group of goods determined by the Government of the Russian Federation, which include wine and vodka, tobacco products, cars, fur and leather products, and jewelry.
Excise rates for domestic and imported products are different. The excise tax is calculated similarly to the customs duty:
AC \u003d TC x A / 100,
where AC - excise duty, rub.;
TS - customs value of goods, rub.;
A - excise rate, %.
To determine VAT, the tax base for imported goods includes the amount of customs duty and excise duty:
VAT amount = (TS + TP + AS) x VAT / 100,
where VAT is the VAT rate, %.
In addition to the specified taxes during customs clearance with legal entities a customs duty is charged in the amount of 0.1% of the invoice value in rubles and 0.05% in the settlement currency.
2.2. Non-tariff methods of regulation
Quantitative or so-called non-tariff restrictions are direct administrative rules established by the state that determine the quantity and range of goods allowed for import or export. Along with the type and quantity, the range of countries from which these goods can be imported is sometimes limited. Like customs duties, quantitative restrictions reduce competition in the domestic market from foreign goods. Quantitative restrictions can also be used to eliminate trade imbalances with individual countries, are applied as a response to discriminatory actions of other countries. State restrictions on exports are introduced most often in relation to goods that the country itself is in dire need of.
Non-tariff methods, i.e., various technical, administrative measures, as well as measures to protect human health, protect the environment, protect national security, etc., are used to varying degrees by all countries of the world, although the GAAT, and then the WTO, put the task is to abolish such measures as much as possible and switch over to the regulation of foreign trade only by tariff methods.
Non-tariff restrictions that are used in Russia are shown in fig. four.
Non-tariff methods of regulation provide for the use of special permits for the import and export of a number of goods - licenses. Licensing is subject to quota goods; specific goods; dual-use goods, the monopoly on trade of which is established by the state.
Licenses are single and general. The latter are issued for a period of 1 calendar year. To obtain a license, the enterprise applies to the authorized MINFER in the region, which, in accordance with the established procedure, considers the application and makes an appropriate decision.
When licensing, state authorities prohibit free import or export without a license. The license is issued for a certain quantity of goods and is valid for the period specified in it. Usually, export and import licenses are issued to enterprises, firms by government or authorized special state bodies.
In the modern practice of foreign economic regulation, quantitative restrictions are used to a small extent. Countries that own special equipment and technology used for military purposes restrict or prohibit the export of so-called strategic goods to certain countries where they can be used to the detriment of the security of other states. Thus, the countries that are members of the NATO bloc created in 1949 a special Coordinating Committee of the North Atlantic Bloc Advisory Group (KOCOM), which develops lists of goods that are not subject to export and other countries, according to a separate list.

Fig.4. Non-tariff methods of regulation
Quantitative control is the control of import or export of goods in the established maximum volume or value (quotas).
There are several types of quantitative restrictions. Contingenting represents the restriction of exports and imports of goods by a certain amount or amount (contingent) for a specified period of time. A quota is a restriction on the quantity (quota) of exports or imports of goods of a certain name.
Quota (quota determination) is widely used and complies with the rules of world trade established by GATT/WTO. For example, trade in textiles and clothing is subject to quantitative regulation on a multilateral basis.
In Russia, due to the shortage of the domestic market and the difference between world and domestic prices, quotas were introduced for the export of certain goods - oil and petroleum products, hydrocarbon raw materials, non-ferrous metals, crustaceans, caviar, commercial timber, etc. As domestic prices approach the world list quotas gradually decreased, and since January 1, 1995, quotas have also been maintained for goods for which Russia fulfills international obligations: uranium, steel, silicon carbide, ammonium nitrate, threads and yarn, clothes, blankets, blankets, etc.
Import quotas in Russia have not yet been used. However, the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On the introduction of protective measures in relation to the import into the customs territory of the Russian Federation of ethyl alcohol from food raw materials and vodka" provides for the introduction from January 1, 1997 of a ban on the import of these goods without quotas and an import license.
The distribution of quotas is carried out by holding competitions and auctions, allowing to ensure competition between participants in foreign economic activity.
Specific goods include wild animals, plants, fossil bones, horns, hooves, corals, mineralogy and paleontology collection materials, peel information, etc. To obtain a license for these goods, you must obtain permission from the relevant ministries and departments - for example. Ministries of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources for the export of animals, corals and other similar products; Ministry of Agriculture to obtain imported high school cabbage soup for chemicals protection, etc.
The state monopoly is established on the trade in products, the use of which requires a special permit; weapons, ammunition, dual-use goods ( rocket fuel, uranium, x-ray equipment, poisons, drugs, etc.), precious metals and stones, results scientific research in the area of ​​weapons. Based on the conclusion of the Commission for Export Control of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs gives licenses for the trade of this group of goods exclusively to state unitary enterprises.
Control over the quality of goods imported into Russia must comply with the technical, pharmacological, sanitary, veterinary, phytosanitary and environmental standards and requirements of Russia. For a number of goods, in accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On Protection of Consumer Rights", mandatory certification of goods and services has been introduced, the quality of which determines the health and life of a person, the state of the environment. The list of goods requiring confirmation of quality and safety is approved by the State Standard together with the State Customs Committee. It includes food, goods for children, perfumes, cosmetics and toilet products, household appliances, etc.
Bans and restrictions on exports and (or) imports can be introduced as protective measures, i.e. deviation from the principles of free trade, dictated by the need to avoid economic shocks. They are introduced in cases where a sharp increase in imports threatens the national production of certain goods.
In Russia, the procedure for taking such measures is provided for by the Procedure for conducting an investigation prior to the introduction of protective measures, approved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on December 21, 1995. The Commission of the Government of the Russian Federation on protective measures for foreign trade instructs the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to organize an investigation based on a statement from an association of producers, directly from the manufacturer or the federal executive body at the request of Russian manufacturers.
The presence of this document allows domestic producers to protect their economic interests in the Russian market if, after the end of the investigation, it is determined that imports cause them material damage, if the inevitability of such damage is obvious, or the development of domestic production is significantly delayed. The result of the investigation was the introduction of quotas for the import of ethyl alcohol and vodka from January 1, 1997.
Customs - tariff and non-tariff regulation of foreign economic activity determine the list of basic documents required for customs clearance:
an invoice indicating the name (list) of the exported or imported products, unit price, quantity and total cost;
passport of the transaction of the exporter (importer) or barter transaction, drawn up in authorized banks;
certificate of conformity GOST of the Russian Federation (for goods requiring safety confirmation);
certificate of origin of goods at the request of the customs authorities, if necessary;
licenses for licensed goods;
permission for goods subject to the control of state bodies;
payment documents confirming the payment of customs duties,
taxes and customs clearance fees.
In 1992, the KOCOM Cooperation Forum was held in Paris. It was attended by 42 countries, including Russia. At the meeting, it was proposed to cancel these lists in relation to States former USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe, but on the condition that they take decisive steps to prevent the leakage of information about new technologies to countries outside this association of states.
In addition to quantitative restrictions, there are other means of non-tariff restriction. These include customs and consular formalities, internal taxes, excise duties, certain quality standards, packaging, labeling and a number of similar measures. One of the forms of trade barriers is state negotiations with the exporter on the "voluntary" limitation of their deliveries to the given country. Companies exporting products are actually forced to take into account such requests and go for voluntary restrictions in order to avoid the application of severe trade restrictions on them and their goods by importing states.
In connection with the growing interest of companies in penetrating foreign markets, there is an increase in the activity of the state in the field of export formation.
The modern complex system of forcing the sale of goods on the world market includes economic incentives for exports, administrative measures to influence exports, and the use of moral incentives for exporters. The main role in this system is played by economic instruments - credit and financial.
Credit funds for the purpose of boosting exports are mainly used in two forms: by providing export credits on more favorable terms compared to the conditions in force in the domestic or international market, and by insuring export transactions, mainly export credits, which allows private banks to provide them also on more favorable conditions.
The active role of the state in providing long-term and medium-term loans is explained by the fact that commercial banks are reluctant to provide financing. associated with a long investment of funds and high risk.
The expansion of the state system of export insurance is based on political and economic instability. This system, to some extent, guarantees companies from the risks associated with the insolvency of buyers, inflationary price increases, etc.
The purpose of state export insurance is to secure and reduce the cost of the export of goods as much as possible, and, consequently, to stimulate the foreign economic activity of companies.
Tax incentives and subsidies are important financial instruments for boosting exports. The assistance received by exporters in this form significantly increases the competitiveness of goods and stimulates commercial and sometimes industrial activity.
Selling goods in the markets of other countries at lower prices than in the domestic market is called dumping, while goods are often sold at a price below the cost of production. By resorting to dumping, exporters are trying to penetrate the market, increase sales, and drive out competitors. To combat this phenomenon, many countries have developed anti-dumping laws. The rules of this legislation apply in cases where dumping threatens to harm trade in the internal market. In this case, the importing country has the right to impose a specific product in addition to the usual duty and anti-dumping, thereby minimizing the price difference in relation to domestic counterparts.
The main forms of tax incentives for exporting enterprises are the establishment of various types of compensation, the expansion of the range of goods that are subject to a preferential taxation regime, and the deferral of tax payments. Companies that export products are allowed by the state to create tax-free funds.
Export subsidies are carried out mainly in certain sectors of international trade. It is used primarily to speed up the sale of agricultural goods and industrial goods that require large financial resources in the manufacture (ships, aviation equipment, etc.).
The state makes a significant contribution to increasing the competitiveness of the company, contributing to measures to improve production technology, create a rational structure of production capacities. To reduce the adverse impact of high production costs on the price level, the government uses subsidies. Unlike measures to improve production, the effectiveness of subsidies is limited by the periods of its application. Ultimately, this form of government support sometimes backfires on the companies that use it. Exporting firms calculate their costs in advance, taking into account the government benefits provided to them. Reducing the scale of subsidies leads to a decrease in the competitiveness of companies. Companies become dependent on government support and unable to compete without this support, and the inability to get a subsidy at the right time becomes tantamount to bankruptcy.
Wishing to promote exports, government agencies assist exporters in identifying promising markets, providing various information, organizing trade exhibitions and fairs in other countries.
State regulation of foreign economic relations is a set of forms, methods and tools used by state bodies and services to influence economic relations between countries and in accordance with state and national interests, goals and objectives. The regulatory influence of the state is carried out through the adoption of laws and other state acts, the resolution and decision of the government.
The mechanism for regulating foreign economic activity has been developed at the legislative level in relation to foreign trade. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities", customs-tariff and non-tariff methods are provided for.
The structure of the authorities and the mechanism for managing foreign economic activity allow the enterprise to assess its capabilities when entering the foreign market. However, for real steps, it is necessary to do a lot of marketing work, to determine your competitive advantages, evaluate the possibility of attracting foreign investors, locating production in a free economic or offshore zone, making a feasibility study of the project.
3. COMPETITIVENESS OF THE PRODUCT
Each commodity producer, whose main goal is to ensure stability and economic efficiency(profitability) of its operations, seeks to win over the consumer, create the prerequisites for the transformation of its potential effective demand into real and thus guarantee the sale of its products.
Winning consumer preference in a saturated market is possible only by offering a product that has 100 advantages over competing products and satisfies consumer requirements at a higher level.
Competitiveness - Comparative characteristics a product containing a comprehensive assessment of the totality of its qualitative and economic properties (parameters) in relation to the identified market requirements or properties of another product. In the latter case, we are talking about the level of competitiveness of the product.
In the buyer's market, the competitiveness of a product is considered from the point of view of the consumer. In conditions of intense competition, this approach focuses on achieving specific market results. At the same time, it is rightly considered that the buyer is primarily interested in the efficiency of consumption (E), defined as the ratio of the total beneficial effect (P) to the total cost of acquiring and using the product (C). Therefore, the condition of competitiveness of goods from the point of view of the consumer takes the form:
E \u003d R / C? max.
This does not mean at all that, while providing the best conditions for the consumer in order to increase competitiveness in the market, the manufacturer should forget about his benefits. The profitability of his own activities is a necessary prerequisite for commercial success.
Assessment of the competitiveness of the goods. To assess the competitiveness of a product, the manufacturer needs to determine the internal structure of P and C, calculate the values ​​of each of their elements (parameter) and purposefully, choosing a certain strategy, influence them, maximizing (or relatively increasing) the competitiveness indicator (K).
The useful effect (P) of each product is described by its own set of qualitative parameters, which we will call consumer.
Determination of a set of consumer parameters of a product is the starting point for analyzing its competitiveness. The next step is to quantify these parameters. An assessment is possible on the basis of the so-called organoleptic methods, built on the subjective perception of a particular property of an object by a person and the expression of the result of perception in digital (point) form. It can be useful to evaluate a product by a group of experts, focusing not so much on its direct perception, but on experience in the market, on an understanding (often intuitive) of the role of a particular property in satisfying a need. This method is called qualimetric, as it is based on the comparison of various properties of the product. Based on the generalization of the opinions expressed, a general quantitative assessment of the "soft" parameter is built.
Having quantitatively determined all the consumer parameters of the product known to us, we can proceed to compare them with the parameters of the sample, assuming that the buyer determines by the value of the parameter how much the property of the product represented by this parameter satisfies the corresponding element of his need.
Sample selection is one of the most important aspects of competitiveness analysis. An error at this stage can lead to a distortion of the analysis results. First of all, the sample must belong to the same class of goods as the product under analysis. It should be the most representative this market, and its main parameters should be considered in dynamics, taking into account the time factor in a rapidly changing market environment.
It should be borne in mind that the value of certain consumer parameters in the formation of the total beneficial effect can vary greatly. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a hierarchy within the list of consumer parameters, highlighting those of them that have the greatest significance (weight) for the consumer. The entire requirement is taken as 100%.
Determining the weight of a parameter is not an easy task. It is advisable to entrust its solution to a group of experts formed at the enterprise, who have reliable market information.
In principle, the parametric index of any regulated parameter can have only two values ​​-0 and 1, depending on whether this parameter complies with all required norms and standards. In this case, of course, the zero value of the index indicates a complete loss of competitiveness of the product.
3.1. Assessment of the competitiveness of the object
The object of the appraisal is a household water pump manufactured by Mostekhnika JSC. Competitiveness, K, is estimated by the formula:
K=? Pi L i,
where P is the weighting factor;
L is an indicator of competitiveness.
Place of the object in the market. The product has new characteristics that are important for a wide range of consumers (2 points).
The probability of obsolescence of the object. The new object will be used during the effective use period (3 points).
Characteristics of the object's market. The market covers the entire country and has a wide variety of consumers (3 points).
Probability of market expansion. The number of consumers of the object will expand slightly or will be stable (2 points).
The price of an object compared to the price of similar objects. The price of this object is lower than all prices of similar objects with approximately the same quality and technical characteristics (3 points).
Degree of patent protection. Author's certificates protect the main components of the object (3 points).
Expected severity of competition. It is difficult for competitors to enter the market with a similar product (high development costs) (3 points).
Availability of distribution channels. Existing foreign trade associations have trading experience (the product is an addition to the one that is already successfully sold) (2 points).
Impact on existing trade. The object has no influence on the volume of sales of other goods (2 points).
Resilience to fluctuations in sales volume. The product is subject to seasonal fluctuations, but they do not go beyond the average (2 points).
The need for equipment. The object can be manufactured at existing production facilities (3 points).
The need for new staff. No new staff or retraining of old staff will be required (3 points).
Availability of raw materials and materials, there are raw materials and materials of medium quality at reasonable prices (2 points).
Weight coefficients are set:
for indicators 1 - 4 - 0.13;
5 - 7 - 0,08;
8 - 13 - 0,04.
Competitiveness assessment:
K \u003d 0.13 x (2 + 3 + 3 + 2) + 0.08 x (3 + 3 + 3) + 0.04 x (2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 2) \u003d 2.58
since K = 2.58, the object being developed is quite competitive, because competitiveness standard K = 2.5 -3.
The assessment of competitiveness can be considered satisfactory when comparing our product with at least 15 products - samples of at least five companies from five countries. As a rule, catalogs are the main source of information about products. In addition, shipping documentation, test reports of foreign products, reports of specialists on foreign business trips, etc. can be used.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Introduction to the market economy. - M.: Higher school, 1994.
Economics course. Ed. B.A. Reisberg. M.: "Infra-M", 1999.
Fundamentals of foreign economic knowledge / ed. I.P. Faminsky. - 2nd ed. Revised and expanded. Moscow: International relations, 1994.
Enterprise economy. Textbook for universities / V.Ya. Gorfikel, E.M. Kupriyanov. Moscow: Banks and exchanges. UNITY, 1996.
Enterprise Economics: Textbook / Ed. prof. O.I. Volkova.-M.: INFRA-M, 1998.

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On the topic: "Methods of regulation of foreign economic activity"

Methods of state regulation of foreign economic activity

The mechanism of state regulation classically includes two groups of methods:

1) Economic methods - involve an indirect impact (market, mediated by the act of sale) on the farm. economic processes. First of all, these methods are used in the sphere of production, where a product offer is formed. To economy methods include the instruments of the financial and credit system (changes in the interest rate, discounts, subsidies), the tax system, the price mechanism, the customs system, the insurance system and the system to stimulate export production.

2) Direct administrative intervention in the economy - in a market economy isp. for short-term regulation, based on government regulations or management decisions.

In addition to these two groups, there are organizational and legal methods in world practice, which include antimonopoly regulation. They are built on a legislative basis that defines the rights of various business structures and establishes the rules of competition. The mechanism of antimonopoly regulation in countries with developed market economies is the most important means of protecting the national interests of small and medium businesses. Antimonopoly regulation allows you to influence economic processes in other countries. The antimonopoly laws of a number of countries contain criteria for recognizing economic practices as monopoly and criteria for their prohibition. An example of a criterion: an excessive volume of sales of goods and services by a particular association, the establishment of directly or indirectly purchase or sale prices and other transaction conditions, the distribution of markets or sources of supply, an unequal approach to partners, etc. Thus, antimonopoly regulation affects not only internal, but also foreign markets. It is a means of combating the abuses of foreign capital and abuses in the markets of other countries. If foreign entrepreneurs aggravate the situation on the domestic market, they are trying to limit or remove them with the help of, among other things, antimonopoly legislation.

In the foreign practice of regulating foreign economic activity, a set of means and instruments of regulation (regulation) has been formed by now, unification and harmonization of international trade systems has been carried out, legislative support has been worked out at a fairly high level, and a high degree of equipment of the information and technical base contributes to the acceleration of information flows. And one more characteristic feature of foreign economic activity: an integrated approach to the use of a variety of complementary and interrelated methods and elements of influence on foreign trade.

An integrated approach to the regulation of VTD includes:

I. Interstate regulation incl. methods: *bilateral and multilateral agreements and treaties (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of the GATT, intergovernmental trade, economic and payment agreements, codes and conventions), *instruments for regulating foreign exchange markets, *systems of crediting export-import operations and insurance of currency risks, standard terms of Incoterms.

II. National regulatory systems - incl. a set of acceptable methods for restricting exports and imports using non-tariff elements or tariff preferences, monetary funds, ways to stimulate export production, technical norms, standards and requirements for imported goods.

Consider II national regulatory systems. Intranational methods can be combined into 4 groups: 1. Non-tariff restrictions, 2. customs and tariff regulation, 3. currency and credit instruments, 4. stimulation of national. exporters.

Non-tariff restrictions foreign trade operations is a set of restrictive and prohibitive measures that prevent the penetration of foreign goods into domestic markets. The purpose of these measures is not only to strengthen the competitive conditions of the importing country, but also to protect the national industry, protect the life and health of the population, the environment, morality, religion and national security.

Measures of non-tariff restriction include: *Measures of financial impact and *Methods of administrative regulation.

The financial impact is provided by a system of customs and targeted fees, taxes and duties, in addition to customs, which are levied upon importation of goods. They are also called paratariff. Fixed and sliding rates are used as instruments of these methods. Sliding rates (sliding import taxes, compensatory import duties on agricultural products) vary depending on the state of the market and the economic policy of the state. Because sliding rates are difficult to predict, the position of importers worsens. Fixed fees mainly increase the domestic price of imported goods, they include domestic specials. taxes, variable import duties, anti-dumping and countervailing duties in relation to the goods of specific importers and to compensate for benefits and subsidies to domestic exporters-producers, border taxes and fees for the clearance and movement of goods.

The methods of administrative regulation of imports are diverse, these are various kinds of quantitative and cost restrictions aimed at reducing the volume and level of import deliveries of certain goods from any source or limiting their receipt from a particular supplier. admin methods regulations include the following:

§ Prohibitions (embargo) - forced measures, take an open and veiled form. Open bans are a complete prohibition of trade based on UN decisions, and some partial bans of an unconditional nature * / on the import of goods that can cause damage to various areas of the life of the state, or * / on the export of, for example, precious metals and valuable papers. Prohibitions are complete and partial. Partial, in turn, are conditional (for those suppliers who do not comply with national rules) and unconditional. Partial bans also include seasonal and temporary import bans. Veiled prohibitions - restrictions on the passage of foreign ships in inland waters, restrictions on the sale of certain goods in retail chains. Prohibitions on the import and export of goods are established in the presence of a shortage or, conversely, the need to prevent it.

§ Quota is the limitation of the size of imports with the help of global, individual, seasonal, tariff and other types of percentage restrictions. The global quota sets a limit on the volume of imports in value or natural terms for a certain period; the value is not broken down by importing countries. Individual quota - the amount of imports in relation to specific countries or a specific product. An individual quota is usually secured by a trade agreement and has the character of a bilateral quota (reciprocal obligations of states are limited). Seasonal quotas limit the amount of agricultural imports for certain times of the year. Quotas are aimed at the balanced development of foreign trade and balance of payments, regulation of supply and demand in the domestic market, fulfillment of international obligations and achievement of a mutually beneficial agreement in intergovernmental negotiations.

§ Licensing - restriction in the form of obtaining the right or permission (license) from the authorized state. authorities for the import / export of a certain volume of goods. Licensing is a temporary measure used in cases of temporary restriction of unwanted imports, or for the rational use of foreign exchange, or as a discriminatory action, or to obtain reciprocal concessions. If customs duties are ineffective, then licensing is introduced. Each state has a list of goods whose import is licensed. Types of licenses - general and individual. A general license is a permanent permission for a company to import certain goods from the countries listed in it without limiting the volume and cost. An individual license is a one-time permit for one trading operation with a specific type of product. The licenses are nominal, non-transferable, and usually valid for 1 year.

§ Contingenting is an integral element of licensing. This is the establishment by the state of centralized control over export and import by limiting the range of goods within the established quantitative or cost quotas for a fixed period of time. The issuance of quotas is monitored through the issuance of licenses. Contingenting is allowed in cases of overcoming a difficult external financial situation or eliminating the deficit in the balance of payments. It has always been banned by the GATT, but is often used by countries citing exceptional circumstances. The contingent of goods in developed countries (ferrous metals, medicines, food, textiles, the most important types of raw materials) brings large profits to companies that work with the contingent. Tariff contingents (refer to tariff methods) allow the import of a certain amount of goods at reduced customs duties or duty-free.

§ "Voluntary" self-restriction of supplies - an informal agreement between the exporter and importer countries to restrict the import of certain goods to the importer's market in the form of either a reduction in volumes, or an increase or decrease in prices by imposing their commercial conditions on the partner in order to make a profit by damaging the interests of the counterparty. Restrictive business practices include: collusion between supplier and buyers to allocate markets and fix prices; use by the exporter of discriminatory prices and commercial terms; delivery "with load" - with conditions in relation to competitors. Voluntary restriction is referred to as a "grey zone", contrary to GATT. countries. For example, Japan in 1989 was forced to accept a "voluntary" refusal to increase car exports to the United States for a period of 5 years. One option for restrictive practice is voluntary export restriction, where a trade barrier in the form of a quota protecting the importing country is placed at the border of the exporting rather than the importing country.

§ Norms, standards and regulations - special requirements for imported goods, in order to comply with safety and environmental protection. But in practice, in a third of cases, the Spanish to protect the interests of domestic manufacturers, for example, the United States obliges foreign car suppliers to expand the use of US-made components. Types of impacts: 1. prohibition or restriction of imports of goods or materials that pollute the environment; 2. protectionism against industrial equipment, vehicles, the operation of which leads to pollution of the atmosphere and air; 3. on the quality of the goods - to protect the interests of consumers, for example, household appliances, medicines, food products, information on the packaging about the dangers of the goods, about disposal and recycling. (Countries have specific sanitary and veterinary regulations regarding the import of agricultural products, food products, perfumes, which establish restrictions on the use of dyes, additives, such as hormones for livestock in the production.)

§ Anti-dumping measures - used by the importing country to put pressure on the exporters of other countries in order to protect their market from foreign products. The criterion for dumping is the comparison of the actual prices of imported goods with the prices of the domestic market in the exporter's country and the establishment of the fact that the goods were sold at a reduced price. Anti-dumping measures are reduced to the collection of compensation from the exporter in the form of a duty for damage to the national industry and the manufacturer in favor of the national. manufacturer. The anti-dumping duty rate is set individually. The fee is charged only after the special. investigations to confirm the fact of dumping and determine the amount of damage. There are temporary and permanent anti-dumping duties. Temporary ones are preventive in nature, permanent ones can force the exporter to leave the market. For example, in the 1990s dumping deliveries of Russian ferrous metals and steel to the American market. When in 1998 this volume increased by 92% in a year, the United States, in search of a compromise with Russia, introduced a quota and fixed the price level. For example, the United States to combat the dumping of TVs from Japan, Korea, Singapore, Canada has set high customs duties. And Mexico, not having its own TV production, for a long time supplied the American market with 70% of TVs imported from Japan at low prices, because. there were no duties on the export of machinery from Mexico.

§ Instructions of the customs authorities - related to the observance of formalities and procedures in relation to goods crossing the customs borders of the country. There are several of these prescriptions: national and international (set out in customs conventions). According to international rules, the prescriptions of the customs authorities should be kept to a minimum of requirements and procedures and applied equally to the goods and vehicles of different countries, without creating additional obstacles to foreign trade. The cargo and the vehicle must follow from customs border on customs territory under customs control to the place customs clearance, the cargo is subject to declaration and customs inspection.

§ Other measures: control over export-import deliveries and price levels, requirements for the payment of advance customs duties, import deposits - interest-free cash deposit paid by the importer for special bank account as a condition for the import operation.

Customs and tariff regulation implies a cost impact on export-import flows in the process of crossing state borders. Tariff regulation determines the procedure and methods of customs taxation of goods, types of tariffs and duties, reasons for establishing and collecting customs duties, and the regime for granting customs benefits. (In the future, tariff regulation should become the only mechanism for regulating foreign trade.) Types customs and tariff regulation:

§ Customs tariff, preference, quota. The customs tariff (the main tool of the tariff regulation mechanism) is a systematized list of rates that determine the amount of payment for import and export goods, i.e. customs duties. The customs tariff covers about 2/3 of the foreign trade turnover of developed countries. By increasing the price of an imported or exported product, it affects the volume and structure of foreign trade. Functions of the customs tariff: 1) protectionism in relation to domestic goods and 2) fiscal as a replenishment of the state budget, 3) allows you to create a positive balance of foreign trade balance, 4) increases the inflow of foreign currency. Customs tariffs are import and export, simple and complex. A simple customs tariff provides for a single rate for each item in the nomenclature, regardless of its country of origin. A complex customs tariff involves the establishment of two or more rates for each product, depending on the country of origin, and the highest rate of the complex tariff (general) is set for those states with which no special tariffs have been concluded. agreements, and lower (conventional) for countries in the most favored nation. Tariff preferences - complex customs tariffs, providing for the presence of especially preferential duties for specific countries, usually in the formation of closed economies. unions; Essentially duty free. Tariff quota - the amount of goods within which it can be imported duty-free or subject to a reduced duty rate.

§ Customs duty is a monetary fee or tax levied by the state on goods, property and valuables when they cross the customs border. Customs duty increases the value of the goods and reduces its competitiveness. The levels of customs duties are differentiated depending on the degree of readiness of the goods and the level of economic development of states. Trend: Increasing the level of customs duties as the degree of processing of products increases, duties are higher in developing countries than in developed ones, the reason for protectionism. Customs duties are * ad valorem (% of the price of goods), ** specific (money unit / weight unit), *** mixed, **** alternative (* or ** at the discretion of the customs authority). Depending on the country of origin, customs duties are maximum, minimum and preferential. Customs duties are used to tax imports, export duties are not used in developed countries, only in some developing countries.

§ Import taxes. Tax and customs duty affect the price of goods, imported goods are the same subject to taxes. Import taxes are 1) equalization, or border - are charged at the time of crossing the customs border by imported goods and correspond to the rates of similar domestic taxes; 2) special - reduce the amount of imports when it is impossible to increase customs duties. An analogue of the customs duty for specific goods; 3) taxes and fees for customs clearance - reimburse the costs of clearing goods, for example, fees for storing goods in customs warehouses, statistical and stamp duties, port charges ... Purpose - to reimburse the costs of customs clearance; 4) sliding - similar to customs duties, but their rate is not fixed. They rise when world prices fall and fall when they rise, thereby achieving a constant level of prices in the domestic market; a kind of sliding - compensatory import duties for specific products and regulate its production, export and import.

Measures to stimulate national exporters in countries with developed market economies

foreign economic national exporter regulation

Methods of stimulating exporters are aimed at providing priorities and various kinds of privileges. They are varied and flexible.

§ State lending - the provision of loans to the exporter through the state. banks and special fin. institutions with the participation of the state, for example, to exporters to cover the difference between a high domestic price and a low world price, as well as by issuing state. guarantees for export credits, when the state assumes all the risks of export delivery.

§ State. export insurance - associated with commercial and political risks

§ Tax and financial incentives - suppliers of export goods are exempt for a certain period from paying taxes - on proceeds from export operations, on property, preferential depreciation; exemption from indirect taxes on scarce raw materials; refund of customs duties and taxes paid when importing raw materials for the needs of export production.

§ Organizational and technical assistance of the state to national firms in the development of new markets and expansion of exports. On provision through the state bodies of commercial information, representation of the interests of private exporters in government organizations, training for foreign economic activity. ministries different countries create a special institutions to assist in finding large orders, informing about international tenders, finding partners abroad.

State. The import policy is aimed at: 1) protecting the national industry, 2) creating a preferential regime for the import of certain goods.

Currency regulation system

An integral part of foreign economic activity is currency regulation and currency control. International settlement and currency-credit relations of Russia with foreign countries, the procedure and scope of the use of foreign currencies by Russian enterprises, organizations and citizens are regulated on the basis of the adopted law of the Russian Federation “On currency regulation and currency control”.

§ Exchange rate - the ratio of the national currency to the currency of another country. The function of the exchange rate is to ensure the proportionality of the exchange of currencies, the basis of which is their purchasing power in relation to goods within the country. The exchange rate also depends on the level of currency convertibility (the ability to exchange for other foreign currencies).

§ Devaluation and revaluation - Spanish. in conditions of intense competition in foreign markets or inflation. Devaluation - the official depreciation of the national currency in order to equalize the external economic balance by increasing exports and reducing imports due to rising prices for imported products. Revaluation - on the contrary, an increase in the exchange rate of the nat. currency has the opposite effect. The revaluation is pushed by the actions of other states wishing to increase the competitiveness of their goods in the markets of countries with an active balance of trade and payments.

§ Currency control. One of the methods is buying and selling in. currencies by central banks in order to limit the exchange rate of the national currency. The purpose of currency control is to ensure compliance with currency legislation in the implementation of foreign exchange transactions. The main directions of currency control are: determination of the compliance of ongoing currency transactions with the current currency legislation and the availability of the necessary licenses and permits for them; verification of the fulfillment by residents of obligations in foreign currency to the state, as well as obligations to sell foreign currency on the domestic foreign exchange market of the Russian Federation; checking the validity of payments in foreign currency, as well as checking the completeness and objectivity of accounting and reporting on foreign exchange transactions; as well as on transactions of non-residents in the currency of the Russian Federation.

Federal Law No. 164-FZ of December 8, 2003 “On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities” (as amended on August 22, 2004, July 22, 2005).

The following methods are officially allowed in the Russian Federation:

1) customs and tariff regulation;

2) non-tariff regulation;

4) economic and administrative measures that promote the development of foreign trade activities and are provided for by this Federal Law.

Customs and tariff regulation in the Russian Federation is carried out through import and export customs duties. Non-tariff regulation isp. in exceptional cases:

§ temporary restrictions or bans on the export of especially important goods (according to a special list) in case of their shortage for domestic consumption

§ restrictions on the import of agricultural goods or aquatic biological resources in order to *reduce surpluses of goods on the Russian market, *replace growing. imported goods, if there are no opportunities for its production in the Russian Federation, etc. - introduce quotas.

§ Licensing Spanish. with *temporary restriction of export of goods, *goods that pose a threat to life, health, property, environment, *exclusive right to export

§ Special protective measures, anti-dumping measures and countervailing measures - to protect the interests of growing. manufacturers

§ Pre-shipment inspection with the issuance of a certificate of passing a pre-shipment inspection - in order to protect the rights and interests of consumers, counteract the distortion of information about imported goods, underestimate their value.

§ Measures to regulate foreign trade in services and intellectual property are established if these measures are for the protection of nat. interests: incl. observance of public morality or law and order; protecting the life or health of citizens, the environment, the life or health of animals and plants; to fulfill the international obligations of the Russian Federation; national defense and state security; to ensure integrity and stability financial system, protecting the rights and interests of investors, depositors, etc.

§ Special types of bans and restrictions on foreign trade in goods, services and intellectual property are introduced: */ for the purpose of the participation of the Russian Federation in international sanctions; */ in order to maintain the equilibrium of the balance of payments of the Russian Federation; */ connected with the measures of currency regulation; */retaliatory measures to foreign countries.

§ Border trade zones and free economic zones.

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System of measures of state regulation of foreign economic activity.

Regulations.

World experience shows that even in the conditions of a developed market economy, there is an objective need for state regulation of foreign trade activities. At the same time, the state is called upon to protect the interests of its producers, take measures to increase exports in every possible way, attract foreign investment, protect the interests of economic entities, legislate the conditions for existence in foreign trade activities and control over their strict observance, both by residents and non-residents. In general, state regulation of foreign trade is a system of measures of influence of various public institutions and state bodies on foreign trade relations in order to most effectively use the advantages of the international division of labor.

State regulation of the economy as a whole is carried out through various forms and methods, the most important of which are forecasting, planning and programming. In the conditions of state regulation of foreign trade activity, forecasting pursues the goal of forming a strategy and priorities in the development of national industries that can ensure the release of competitive products and fit into the world market. Planning is aimed at coordinating the positions of the public and private sectors in the field of foreign trade; in the planning process, the necessary volumes of industrial output, the amount of capital investment, the amount of desired production growth, etc. are outlined for every 3-5 years. Programming is carried out through appropriate programs.

The world practice of a market economy has developed quite effective fundamental approaches and mechanisms for state regulation of foreign trade, although two contradictory trends still face in this area: protectionism, i.e. protection of own production from foreign competition and liberalization, i.e. providing the greatest possible freedom of access for foreign goods and services to the domestic market. Almost all states seek to find a compromise between protectionist measures and the liberalization of foreign trade activities of residents and non-residents.

In accordance with world practice, states use 2 sets of regulation methods: economic (tariff, indirect); administrative (non-tariff, direct).

Economic methods are the stimulation or discouragement of participants in foreign trade activities to carry out or refrain from performing specific operations (transactions). For this purpose, such economic instruments as taxes, duties, subsidies, concessional lending and insurance, currency regulation, the allocation of resources from the state budget for the development of export industries and the information infrastructure of foreign trade activities, etc. are used. Such regulation is considered indirect because the state does not prohibit the implementation of foreign trade operations, but only regulates the level of profitability of the relevant operations and thereby effectively influences the decision of economic entities on the appropriateness of their conduct.

In conditions of a developed market structure, economic methods are the most effective. At the same time, as a rule, exports are stimulated with all sorts of benefits and, in some cases, imports are limited, in particular, by high import duties. Usually, benefits are non-discriminatory in order to create equal conditions for all participants in foreign trade.

The main tool in the hands of the state in the regulation of foreign trade is the use of tariff regulation through the customs tariff. A customs tariff is a systematized list of customs duty rates for goods transported across the border of a given country, established at the legislative level. The customs tariff is the most common instrument of state regulation of foreign trade, acting through the pricing mechanism.

Among the main functions of the customs tariff, protectionist and fiscal ones stand out. The protectionist function is connected with the protection of national producers. The collection of customs duties on imported goods increases the cost of the latter when they are sold on the domestic market of the importing country and thereby increases the competitiveness of similar goods produced by national industry and agriculture. The fiscal function of the customs tariff ensures the receipt of funds from the collection of customs duties in the revenue part of the country's budget.

Administrative (non-tariff) methods of state regulation of foreign trade turnover include numerous measures that restrict the use of foreign goods in the domestic market of the country. According to experts, more than fifty types of non-tariff restrictions are used in foreign trade turnover.

According to the GATT / WTO classification, non-tariff restrictions are divided into 5 main groups:

quantitative restrictions on imports and exports, which include quotas and licensing;

customs and administrative import-export formalities, including anti-dumping duties, methods for assessing the customs value of goods, customs and consular formalities, shipping documents;

standards and requirements for the quality of goods, including sanitary and phytosanitary standards, industrial standards, requirements for packaging and labeling of goods;

restrictions embedded in the payment mechanism: sliding fees, import deposits, benefits for certain industries and enterprises, the exchange rate mechanism;

participation of the state in foreign trade operations, namely: subsidizing the production and export of goods, the system of public procurement, public trade.

Quantitative restrictions directly regulate the amount of goods imported into the country and exported outside it. Of all types of non-tariff barriers, they are the most widespread. In practice, there are two main areas of application of quantitative restrictions: quotas and licensing.

Quoting is an administrative form of non-tariff state regulation of trade turnover, which is based on the restriction by the state authorities of the import (export) of goods in a certain amount or amount for a specified period by means of import (export) quotas. Quotas are implemented through a licensing system.

Licensing is the regulation of foreign trade activities through permits issued by government agencies for the export or import of goods in prescribed quantities for a certain period of time. The main types of licenses are single and general. One-time license - a written permit for up to 1 year for import or export, issued by the authorized body to a particular company for the implementation of 1 foreign trade transaction. General - permission to import or export a particular product during the year without limiting the number of transactions.

In the next group of non-tariff restrictions, the most common are anti-dumping duties, which are applied in cases of importation into the customs territory of the country of goods at a price lower than their normal value in the country of export at the time of import, if such import causes or threatens to cause material damage to domestic producers of such goods or hinders the organization or expansion of the production of such goods in the country. The main purpose of the application is to neutralize the negative consequences of unfair price competition based on dumping.

The next group is based on the so-called technical barriers, which establish the need to verify the compliance of imported products with the requirements of international and national standards and technical norms. They are set either by law or by manufacturers' associations.

If the government considers it necessary to stimulate the export of national producers, then it can provide them with subsidies from the budget in one form or another. Subsidies can be direct or indirect. Direct financing is carried out in the form of payments to the exporter of subsidies from the budget after he has completed an export operation in the amount of the difference between his costs and the income he received. Indirect - hidden subsidies for exporters through the provision of tax incentives, preferential insurance conditions, the transfer of government orders to export companies at inflated prices, etc.

As for the legal and regulatory framework governing foreign trade, I would like to note that the Republic of Belarus has a fairly extensive legislative framework in the form of Decrees of the President of the Republic of Belarus, Laws of the Republic of Belarus, Resolutions of the Council of Ministers, etc.

The legal framework for regulating imports in the Republic of Belarus is the Customs Code of the Republic of Belarus and the Law of the Republic of Belarus "On Customs Tariff" (with subsequent amendments and additions). The Customs Code of the Republic of Belarus determines the customs policy of the Republic, the structure of the customs authorities, the provisions on customs control, and also determines the customs regimes for things moved through the customs territory of the Republic of Belarus and the procedure for applying customs duties for things declared in a particular customs regime.

The Law of the Republic of Belarus "On the Customs Tariff" establishes the procedure for the formation and application of the Customs Tariff of the Republic of Belarus as an instrument of trade policy and state regulation of the domestic market of goods of the country in its relationship with the world market, as well as the rules for imposing customs duties on goods when they are moved across the customs border of the Republic of Belarus . The customs tariff of the Republic of Belarus consists of two parts: import tariff and export tariff.

The following types of customs duty rates are applied in the Republic of Belarus: ad valorem, charged as a percentage of the customs value of taxable goods; specific, charged in the established amount per unit of measurement of taxable goods; combined, combining both types of customs duties.

Customs procedures in Belarus comply with the provisions of the International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Kyoto). Depending on the type of customs processing required, the following procedures may be required in addition to the procedures mentioned in the previous sections: Presentation of the Customs cargo declaration, TIR Carnet (Carnet T.I.R.), waybill, specification and invoice or other accompanying document; documentation confirming that the applicant is legally in possession of the goods to be imported, such as a contract or invoice; payment of customs duty, registration fee, excise duty and VAT; certain control measures (inspection, inspection, examination), for example, related to sanitary and phytosanitary measures; certificate of origin for goods originating from states with which Belarus has concluded free trade agreements or which enjoy tariff preferences.

In order to regulate foreign economic activity, government bodies issue acts of legal regulation of the relationship of counterparties, joint stock laws, customs codes, and resolutions obliging importers and exporters, on the basis of their execution, to observe the interests of states interacting in the foreign market.

Four groups of methods are used to regulate foreign economic activity: international trade agreements; tariff regulation of foreign trade; non-tariff (administrative) measures to regulate foreign trade; economic methods of state stimulation of export production and development of export potential.

The first group of methods for regulating foreign economic activity - international trade agreements. They determine the general ways of developing economic relations between states, establish trade and economic, political regime interactions, provide for the conditions for mutual settlements, terms of cooperation, etc. Contracts may contain long-term agreements (5 - 10 years or more) about trade and other forms of interaction. The conclusion of annual protocols on mutual deliveries of goods is also practiced. Agreements and protocols, complementing each other, contribute to the development of sustainable mutually beneficial cooperation.

In countries with a market economy, the terms of international treaties, agreements and protocols consist of a mandatory part, provided by legislative acts, and an indicative part, determined by the economic interest of entrepreneurs.

The second group of methods for regulating foreign economic activity - tariff regulation of foreign trade, the basis of which are customs tariffs, which by their nature belong to economic regulators.

The third group of methods for regulating foreign economic activity - non-tariff (administrative) measures to regulate foreign trade, which are divided into two groups: protectionist measures and administrative formalities.

Protectionist measures aimed at directly restricting exports and imports in order to protect certain sectors of national production.

Licensing - a system of written permits issued by government agencies for the export and import of goods. Licensing is applied for certain periods of time for individual goods included in the list of products for national purposes.

Contingenting (quoting) of exports and imports - quantitative or cost restrictions on exports and imports, introduced for a certain period of time for individual goods and services, countries and groups of countries.

Anti-dumping procedures are legal and administrative claims brought by national entrepreneurs against foreign suppliers, accusing them of selling goods at underpriced prices that could harm local manufacturers of similar products.

Price preferences install in legislative order some countries by determining the minimum price difference at which the importer's goods and services must be below the prices of domestic producers. Only in the event that national companies can place their orders with a foreign manufacturer if the prices for its products are lower than national analogues by no less than the specified minimum.

Measures related to administrative formalities, restrict trade.

Customs formalities. They are based on the customs code approved by the legislature. The Customs Code defines the general tasks and functions of the customs authorities, the procedure for developing, approving and using tariffs, the conditions for exemption from duties, sanctions for violation of customs rules, and the procedure for considering complaints. Customs formalities are among the most effective methods foreign trade regulation.

technical procedures. They are established by law by state organizations and represent a set of measures to verify the compliance of imported products with the requirements of international and national standards, industry standards and technical regulations. One type of technical barrier is the requirement to certify goods imported into the country. Why they are subjected to tests for compliance of their properties with the requirements of standards for technical, sanitary, technological, radiation, veterinary, environmental and other indicators. This procedure is selective, but it can seriously complicate the sale of a number of goods if they are not certified in advance.

Import Procedures are the rules for conducting import operations in public procurement. In many countries, in these cases, the buyer must conduct an international auction in order to determine the most advantageous seller. Sometimes a buyer is only granted a license if it has met the requirements for counter-export transactions.

Operational regulation of foreign economic activity. The state regulatory authorities of the Russian Federation may suspend the operations of foreign economic activity participants in the event of the supply of low-quality products, failure to fulfill the obligations of export deliveries while exporting similar goods in other forms, exports at unreasonably low prices or imports at inflated prices, reporting false information in advertising, customs, foreign exchange financial and registration documentation. Suspension of foreign economic operations is applied both to domestic subjects of foreign economic activity, and to foreign ones that have committed violations of the law.

The fourth group of methods for regulating foreign economic activity - economic methods of state stimulation of export production and development of export potential. In order to stimulate the development of exportable industries in the world practice, a wide range of tools is used. Let's consider the most important of them.

direct public funding exporters. It is carried out in the form of additional payments to firms and companies of subsidies from the budget to eliminate the difference between the cost of production and export prices to ensure profit. This method is used in cases of supply of large material-intensive goods (for the supply of ships, oil drilling platforms, etc.).

Government funding for R&D. With regard to science-intensive goods that require significant expenditures for research and development, state assistance to the exporter is usually indirect in nature and consists in financing development (up to 30% of the necessary funds), increasing the percentage of depreciation for the equipment used.

Indirect financing of exporters. It is produced through a network of private banks, to which the state issues special subsidies to reduce lending rates to exporters. Indirect financing also includes the return to exporters of duties paid on the import of raw materials, as well as the transfer of government, including military, orders to exporters at stable and, as a rule, high prices.

Reducing taxes on exporters. The most common direct reduction of taxes from firms, companies, depending on the share of exports in their production. Often used is the permission for exporting firms to make contributions to the reserve funds for the development of export production from the non-taxable part of the profits.

Exporter lending can be internal and external:

  • o domestic lending is carried out through state banks by providing medium-term (up to five years) and long-term (up to 20-30 years) loans for the development of export production in national and hard currency. At the same time, loans are provided on favorable terms at stable rates;
  • o external lending is aimed at allocating loans to importers in the form of financial and commodity loans to suppliers of export products. The state subsidizes both corporate and bank loans from the budget, which are targeted and, therefore, should be used by foreign recipients only for the purchase of goods from the firm or country of the creditor.

Export insurance. It has two directions - internal and external.

Domestic insurance is carried out by the state, which helps, at the expense of budgetary funds, to cover part of the risks in case of large investments in export production.

When implementing external insurance the state, at the expense of the budget, assumes part of the political and commercial risks of export. Political risks include wars, government coups, sudden changes in the political situation, strikes. All these factors either make it difficult or even disrupt the execution of contracts. Commercial risks include currency fluctuations, bankruptcies, changes in the customs and tax systems. Thanks to insurance, the exporter recovers almost all losses from risks.

Assistance to state representations abroad, who are engaged in advertising national goods, supporting private firms, etc. This usually takes the form of helping to set up overseas offices, funding research into foreign markets, and so on. To this end, organizational, statistical, research and information work is carried out in countries with a market economy. Collection of statistical data, analysis of the state and evaluation of the prospects for foreign economic activity is carried out, reference books are published. With the help of embassies, trade missions and representative offices, government services receive commercial information and find foreign contractors. International symposiums, conferences, exhibitions and other forms of acquaintance of representatives of business circles from different countries with achievements in the economy, science, and technology contribute to the establishment of interaction between counterparties.

Schematically, the methods of regulation of foreign economic activity are presented in fig. 4.4.

New trends in the development of state export support policy are more focused on measures of indirect support for individual industries and groups

Rice. 4.4.

goods while abandoning traditional schemes of direct export subsidies and subsidies.

Test

Methods of state regulation of foreign economic activity



Modern trends in customs regulation of foreign economic activity

Limits and conditions for the effective application of tariff and non-tariff measures for regulating foreign economic activity

Literature


1. The mechanism of state regulation of foreign economic activity and its elements, their role and significance


Currently, international economic relations are one of the most dynamically developing areas of economic life. For centuries, economic relations between states existed mainly as foreign trade, solving the problem of providing the population with goods that the national economy produced inefficiently or did not produce at all. In the course of the development of society, foreign economic relations outgrew foreign trade and turned into a complex set of international economic relations - the world economy.

Structural shifts taking place in the economies of various countries under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. Up to a quarter of the world's production enters the international trading system every year. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. For any country, the role of foreign trade can hardly be overestimated. According to WTO research, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. Foreign trade has become a powerful factor in economic growth. At the same time, the dependence of countries on international trade increased significantly.

The Republic of Belarus is a typical small country with an open economy: the presence of a developed industry with an export orientation, the lack of own resources predetermines our active participation in international trade.

The current state of world economic relations is characterized by further progress in the development of specialization on an international scale and the increasing dependence of national economies on external factors, primarily on the development of world production, the level of science and technology, and the development of foreign trade. Even states with enormous natural, material and human resources cannot develop effectively without active participation in the international division of labor. According to the definition of J. Sachs, “the economic success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. No country has yet managed to create a healthy economy by isolating itself from the world economic system.” The place that a country is trying to take in the world economic system is expressed by its foreign economic policy.

Foreign economic policy is a system of measures aimed at achieving certain advantages in the world market by the economy of a given country and at the same time protecting the domestic market from the competition of foreign goods.

Foreign economic policy, as history shows, is often used to achieve certain political goals and, therefore, is rightfully considered an integral part of the external and domestic policy states.

The main task of the state in the field of international trade can be formulated quite simply - to help exporters export as much of their products as possible, making their goods more competitive in the world market, and to limit imports, making foreign goods less competitive in the domestic market. In this regard, part of the methods of state regulation is aimed at protecting the domestic market from foreign competitors and therefore refers primarily to imports. Another part of the methods is aimed at stimulating exports.

The above is closely intertwined with the concept of the country's foreign trade balance - the ratio of the value of exports and imports of goods for a certain period of time. The foreign trade balance includes goods transactions actually paid for and carried out on credit.

It is generally accepted that a country should strive for an active (positive) trade balance, which is characterized by an excess of exports of goods (exports) over exports (imports). The concept of trade balance is often used. So the trade surplus is the excess of a country's merchandise exports over its merchandise imports.

At the same time, it should be noted that there is a theory according to which the foreign trade balance is not of decisive importance and does not characterize the results of economic activity. It was formulated by adherents of the theory of free trade. But this deserves separate consideration.

At various periods of their development, individual states pursued the foreign trade policy that at this stage was most consistent with the specific situation that existed in the given country. First of all, this is determined by the level of development and competitiveness of the economy. Let us consider in more detail the main types of foreign trade policies.

Given the fact that the basis of the economy of the feudal society was merchant capital, for which money was synonymous with wealth, a corresponding policy was formulated, which was called mercantilism. Its supporters proceeded from the fact that the wealth of the state, which they identified with money capital, depends on the maximum possible accumulation of money (gold and silver). Therefore, they believed, foreign trade should be focused on the accumulation of precious metals by pursuing a policy of restricting imports and expanding exports with the help of state intervention and its control over the state of foreign trade. Customs duties were the main means of restricting the access of foreign goods to the domestic market. Often they had to be paid directly in gold. In addition, restrictions were imposed on the export of luxury goods (it was believed that this was an unreasonable waste of money - precious metals).

Thus, the policy of mercantilism is characterized by strong state intervention in foreign trade in terms of import restrictions.

With the development of productive forces and the transition to the capitalist mode of production, the policy of mercantilism gradually transformed into a policy of protectionism, the task of which was to protect the national economy. The protectionist policy was based on the desire to protect the domestic economy with the help of customs duties and quantitative restrictions on imports, and sometimes exports.

Protectionism first began to be applied in the 16th century in England during the industrial revolution.

From the point of view of world trade, the industrial revolution is characterized by the fact that the machine method for the production of mass goods (primarily textiles) has received sufficient development, as well as the development of transport (primarily railways and steamships), which made it possible to transport large quantities of goods cheaply over long distances.

The combination of these two factors was the main driving force industrial revolution and the explosive development of international trade.

To protect the industrial enterprises created in the country from the competition of foreign goods (primarily Dutch and French), high rates of duties were introduced on goods that England began to produce at home. In addition, quantitative restrictions were imposed on the importation of goods into England. According to the established procedure, foreign goods were allowed to be brought only on English ships or on ships of the country of origin of the goods, but an additional fee was charged. And colonial goods were carried exclusively on British ships, and without calls along the way to any ports, which was strictly controlled by the authorities. The purpose of all these measures was to reduce the power of Holland in the field of foreign trade and stimulate the development of its own production. Soon the example of England was followed by other states - Spain, Sweden, France.

English protectionism has almost four hundred years of history and is the most a prime example the positive impact of a reasonable customs policy in the country on its economy. By the beginning of the 19th century, in terms of its development, England came out on top in the world, when the pace of industrial development was high, and the cost of production was the lowest in the world. However, the implementation of the sharply increased volumes of much cheaper goods was hindered by the obstacles created by the policy of protectionism, which led in practice to the division of world trade into sectors that united the mother countries and the colonial countries associated with them.

These objective needs for the development of the capitalist mode of production led to the emergence of a new concept, the so-called theory of "free trade" (or free trade - from English words free trade).

The founders of the theory of free trade are considered to be the classics of English political economy A. Smith and D. Ricardo. The main idea of ​​their teaching was that countries that actively participate in the international division of labor on the basis of production costs or, as they were expressed, labor costs (absolute - according to A. Smith and relative - according to D. Ricardo) receive the greatest benefit, while the total volume of output (and, accordingly, consumption) of products will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which costs are lower.

Under these conditions, England moved from a policy of protectionism to free trade, that is, to free trade. English industry at that time suffered from a lack of sales. The high price of bread and the high cost of living reduced the purchasing power of the home market, and English goods could not be sold abroad. Then the English industrialists declared: “Whoever wants to sell must also buy. The peoples of the continent will not take the products of our industry if we do not buy what they have to sell. We produce factories cheaper, so in exchange for the products of our factories, they can only give us their raw materials. Let it be so, let us take their bread for our manufactured products. This forced the English industrialists to take the lead in the movement to repeal the Corn Laws. In 1850, the free import of grain was allowed, and soon after this, all other protective duties were removed.

Development in other countries went in a completely different direction. With the exception of England, the trade policy of all countries took on a sharply protective character. Those duties that were introduced only as a temporary measure of assistance to the young industry continued to exist even where there could be no question of temporary difficulties for the young, not yet strong, industry. Agrarian duties have also become widespread. Protectionism has become a means of permanent protection against foreign competition.

The essence of the views of supporters of free trade directly contradicted the views of mercantilists and representatives of protectionism, since the liberals recommended that the state limit intervention in the economy as much as possible, including in foreign trade. It was allowed only in rare cases: to ensure the security and strengthening of the country's defense capability or to neutralize state support for exports carried out by another state.

In this way:

Protectionism is a policy aimed at protecting one's own industry, agriculture from foreign competition in the domestic market. The protectionist customs policy is characterized by high customs tariffs and restrictions on imports.

Free trade is the policy of free trade. Free trade eliminates (or reduces) any obstacles in foreign trade relations and is achieved by minimizing any restrictions on foreign trade turnover by the state. It is believed that such a policy leads to an increase in trade, contributes to a more profitable international division of labor and the satisfaction of market needs.

These two main trends (freedom of trade and protectionism) have been preserved in modern foreign economic policy. At the same time, the choice of one or another means of regulating foreign trade depends on the domestic economic situation and the position of the country in the world market.

Thus, the policy of free trade did not last long in England. The development of industry in other European countries, primarily in Germany and France, led to the loss of economic leadership by England and the emergence of competition for English goods in the domestic and foreign markets. The consequence of this was the abandonment of the free trade policy and the transition to protectionism.

As history shows, free trade and protectionism in their “pure form” have almost never been used. As a rule, a policy is always pursued that combines both approaches, and at the same time it is correct to speak of the predominance of one or another direction in the foreign trade policy of the state.

Nevertheless, it is possible to formulate in general terms the reasons that determine the position of the state in pursuing a particular policy, that is, influencing the solution of the question: “protectionism or free trade”?

The policy of protectionism was carried out by the state in those periods when the domestic economy of a given country or its individual sectors were not sufficiently competitive in the world market, and therefore needed the help of the state, which created a system for protecting weak industries, using a certain set of trade and political means for this.

On the contrary, when the economy of one of the countries pulled ahead in its development compared to other states, its representatives demanded the removal of obstacles to the movement of goods, and in the first place, customs duties and quantitative restrictions, i.e., they spoke under the slogan of freedom of trade .

The debate about whether protectionism or free trade is better continues to this day. At the same time, the arguments of the supporters of each of these directions in defense of their position and criticism of this position are of interest.

The main arguments in favor of free trade are:

  • Since the structure and level of technological knowledge of each country is different, each country must produce those goods whose production costs are relatively lower than those in other countries, and exchange goods in which it specializes in other goods, the production costs of which in the country are higher relative to other countries. . That is, the world - and every free-trading country - can get more real income from the use of the amount of resources that they have. If countries cannot trade freely, they must shift resources from efficient (low-cost) to inefficient uses in order to meet their diverse needs.
  • Benefits from trade arise mainly from the difference between domestic and world prices. Importing goods that are cheaper than local substitutes increases consumption and saves resources that were previously used to produce these goods domestically at higher costs. These resources can then be used to expand the production and export of goods that are priced higher abroad than on the local market, thereby further gaining from trade.
  • In the presence of economies of scale, gains from trade arise also in the absence of differences in world prices. In this case, international trade allows countries to specialize in fewer types of goods and, therefore, to produce each type of goods in more and at a lower price.
  • Protection from imports, as well as support for exports in general, reduce welfare. They also affect the distribution of income: even when trade policy results in a reduction in national income and inefficiencies in the economic system, it always benefits individual firms or individuals at the expense of the rest of society.
  • In the presence of market imperfections, such as unemployment or dynamic economies of scale, import protection can, in some cases, increase welfare. However, measures that directly address market imperfections, such as investment in production development or labor market reforms, are more effective than protectionist trade policies.
  • When there is imperfect competition in domestic markets, firms have market power, which means that their prices are too high and their productivity is too low. In this case, trade liberalization has the additional benefit of depriving local firms of their bargaining power, thereby forcing them to lower prices and increase productivity.
  • If every country does this, the world can take full advantage of geographic and human specialization. At the same time, the long-term effect of the advantages of free trade attracts attention.
  • It is necessary to make an important remark about the labor market in the country. Modern high-tech production requires a highly skilled workforce. Labor mobility is also very important. The participation of the country in the international division of labor implies a dynamic increase in the role of some industries (the emergence of new ones) while abandoning traditional sectors of the economy. At the same time, the need to change a profession should be considered by a person not as the collapse of his whole life, but as a normal process aimed primarily at providing him with great advantages.
  • But really, it's just in theory. In the most developed countries, the unemployment rate is much lower than the number of vacancies, and in the most modern and sought-after areas.
  • Scientists also note the possibility of achieving a side benefit from free trade, which consists in the fact that the latter stimulates competition and limits monopoly. Increased competition from foreign firms is forcing local firms to move to production technologies with the lowest costs. It also forces them to innovate, improve product quality using new production methods, and thus promote economic growth. Free trade, moreover, gives consumers the opportunity to choose from a wider range of cheaper products.
  • The main arguments of supporters of protectionism:
  • Protectionism increases employment in the country as a result of increased consumption of domestic goods. This claim is usually refuted by the following arguments: free imports also create new jobs in industries that can develop. At the same time, the presence of inefficient industries leads to the conservation of significant labor and material resources in them, which could be used more optimally. From the point of view of the consumer, he is forced to consume domestic products of lower quality and more expensive goods.
  • Protectionism protects new industries from foreign competition. Criticism: This argument can be called a fair exception, with economic justification. Indeed, the temporary protection of young national firms from the fierce competition of more mature and therefore currently more efficient foreign firms provides an opportunity for emerging industries to grow stronger and become efficient producers. But in this connection it is necessary to remember the following. First, in underdeveloped countries it is very difficult to determine which of the industries is the "newborn" that is able to reach economic maturity and therefore deserves protection. Secondly, in highly developed countries, when in the face of fierce foreign competition, national producers turn to the government with a request to protect them, giving them the opportunity to modernize and increase competitiveness, the opposite effect is possible. Protectionism, while increasing profits and providing funds for modernization, at the same time de-emphasizes the need for change. Long-term protection leads to the degradation of the industry, since it has no incentives for development.
  • Protectionism reduces dependence on other countries, including for the purposes of national (military) security, the value of which exceeds economic benefits. Criticism: it is impossible (inefficient) to develop all industries, especially for a small country, i.e. a certain dependence is still unavoidable. A modern war cannot last for a long time, and it is more profitable for the country to create strategic stocks of necessary goods in case of war at peacetime prices than to constantly support a number of inefficient sectors of the economy.
  • It should also be noted that arguments in favor of protectionism tend to emphasize the immediate effects that are possible as a result of the introduction of trade barriers, and ignore the long-term consequences.
  • As for the consequences of the protectionist policy, first of all, it should be noted the increase in prices and the decrease in the volume of consumption of goods. This, of course, primarily affects national consumers. There are also indirect consequences of protectionism. The latter lies in the fact that duties directly promote the expansion of relatively inefficient industries that do not have comparative advantages, and indirectly hinder the development of relatively efficient industries that have comparative advantages. This means that tariffs cause a less efficient use of national and global resources and lead to a reduction in real output as separate country and global production as a whole.
  • Sometimes supporters of free trade also make such a seemingly indisputable argument in their favor. They say that since restrictions on trade (for example, in the form of tariffs) can be a boon, why not apply them more widely, for example, in trade between separate regions of one country (in trade between the US states) or other smaller economic units - cities and towns. even individual families. But since the obvious absurdity of such a proposal does not require proof, why then the same approach is used in trade between countries.
  • At the same time, the need for a division of labor at this level is not questioned: the tailor will not sew boots for himself, but will buy them from a shoemaker.
  • Additionally: a ban on the establishment of any trade barriers in domestic trade is specifically stipulated in the legislation of the vast majority of countries, especially large ones: the USA, Russia, the European Union.
  • The arguments of both sides seem very convincing, and if as a result of the study this material You did not classify yourself as a supporter of one direction or another in foreign trade policy, then this is most likely correct. The question of the benefits of free trade or protectionism seems much more complex and multifaceted. In addition, it should be remembered that foreign trade is the area of ​​the economy most influenced by politics: economists offer and justify one approach, but in practice it often happens the other way around. And this is typical for the whole world.
  • Given all of the above, one cannot but agree with a number of authoritative researchers who believe that the benefits that protectionism brings are achieved at the cost of much greater losses for the economy as a whole. And at the same time, no direct relationship has been established between trade liberalization and the pace of the country's economic development.
  • The beginning of the current stage of development of world trade relations is considered to be the period after the Second World War. At this time, there were significant changes in the world economic structure. First of all, the United States took the leading role in the world, under the influence of whose policy many international organizations were created, and above all the World Trade Organization (WTO). Its goal and objectives largely reflected the goals and objectives of the United States at that time - the widespread liberalization of trade in order to ensure the sale of goods around the world. Most of the less developed countries have largely become hostages of such policies.
  • Despite the fact that at present more than 150 countries are members of the WTO and officially adhere to liberal approaches to foreign trade policy, none of them, including the founders of the WTO, use the free trade policy in its purest form and do not hesitate to use all possible means protection of their interests, even those not authorized by the WTO, if necessary.
  • More details about current trends in the regulation of foreign trade will be discussed in the next question.
  • Instruments of foreign trade policy.
  • Since, as shown above, the main task of the state in the field of international trade is to help exporters export as much of their products as possible, making their goods more competitive in the world market, and to limit imports, making foreign goods less competitive in the domestic market. Thus, foreign economic policy has two sides: defensive and offensive. It is carried out with the help of a certain arsenal of measures, which, quite conditionally, can also be divided into defensive and offensive ones. Protective should primarily be understood as measures aimed at restricting imports, and offensive - at supporting exports.
  • States, pursuing a certain foreign economic policy, use foreign trade policy instruments, the choice of which depends on its specific goals. To achieve the same goal, various tools can be applied, so in each specific situation, the state chooses one or another combination of them.
  • The whole set of methods for regulating foreign economic activity, depending on the classification features (criteria), can be divided into economic and administrative, tariff and non-tariff.
  • The main role in the regulation of foreign economic activity in modern conditions is played by economic methods, as they correspond to the nature of market relations and affect the import of goods and the formation of a specific environment in the domestic market through the price mechanism.
  • Using economic instruments, the state influences the economic interests of the subjects of foreign economic activity, while maintaining their complete economic independence, and the consumer retains the freedom of choice between imported and domestic goods, which is one of the most important conditions for the functioning of normal market relations. Economic methods are divided into tariff and non-tariff.
  • Tariff methods are the basis of economic regulation of foreign economic activity. Their essence lies in the imposition of customs duties on goods transported across the customs border.
  • Customs duty - a mandatory fee collected by the customs authorities when importing or exporting goods and which is a condition for import or export.
  • Depending on the direction of movement of goods, duties are import and export. Customs duties applied to various goods are summarized in the customs tariff (respectively import and export). As a rule, the import customs tariff is of greater importance.
  • The export customs tariff is a tool for regulating exports. It is used mainly by developing countries with exceptional natural resources. The use of export duties increases the price of goods in the foreign market and reduces its competitiveness. Therefore, export duties are usually applied to raw materials and are in fact an instrument of redistribution in favor of society of part of the social wealth from the export of raw materials. They can also be used to restrict the export of strategically important goods. In other cases, export duties are generally not applied. For example, the US Constitution prohibits the use of export duties.
  • The import customs tariff is a tool for regulating imports. Along with the internal tax system, it influences the price level, the state of the national currency, and the formation of an optimal import system. The application of import duties increases the price of a product in the domestic market and therefore reduces its competitiveness in the domestic market compared to similar domestic products. In addition, import duties are often a significant source of national budget revenues (especially in countries with low level economic development).
  • The main functions of the country's import customs tariff:
  • Protectionist - protecting the domestic market from foreign competition.
  • Fiscal - an important source of income for the country's budget.
  • Regulatory - the creation of a favorable structure for imports by limiting the import of unwanted goods.
  • Stimulating - restricting the import of some goods may be an incentive for the import of others or for organizing their production in the country.
  • The mechanism of the influence of an import tariff on the economy of the country applying it is quite complex and will be considered in detail when studying the relevant topic.
  • In conclusion, we note that only the application of the customs tariff (customs duties) is related to tariff regulation. All other measures of regulation of foreign economic activity of an economic nature are non-tariff.
  • Non-tariff methods of regulation are the most effective element of the implementation of foreign trade policy for the following reasons:
  • non-tariff methods of regulation, as a rule, are not bound by any international obligations. In this regard, the scope and methodology of their application is fully regulated by national government agencies and is determined by the economic and technical legislation of the country;
  • non-tariff methods are more convenient in achieving the desired result in foreign economic policy due to the direct nature of their impact on the subjects of foreign economic activity;
  • non-tariff methods make it possible to take into account the specific situation that is developing in the world economy and apply adequate measures to protect the national market within a specific period;
  • Non-tariff measures are divided into economic and non-economic (administrative). The former primarily include the taxation of goods with value added tax (VAT) and excises.
  • It should be noted that a unified classification of non-tariff methods of regulation has not yet been developed. However, the most widely used classification of the WTO, according to which non-tariff restrictions are divided into five main groups:
  • quantitative restrictions on imports and exports;
  • customs and administrative import-export formalities;
  • standards and requirements for the quality of goods;
  • the restrictions laid down in the mechanism of payments;
  • participation of the state in foreign trade operations.
  • The specialized literature contains data on a huge arsenal of non-tariff regulation measures (more than 900). At the same time, a measure of non-tariff regulation should be understood as any, direct or indirect, impact on the part of the state on the possibility or results of imports and exports of goods, with the exception of tariff measures.
  • Quantitative restrictions on imports and exports are understood as an administrative form of non-tariff regulation of trade turnover, which determines the quantity and range of goods allowed for export or import.
  • These methods of non-tariff regulation are most widely used in international trade. At the same time, they include: quoting; licensing; voluntary export restrictions; embargo.
  • Quota is a restriction of export or import of goods in a certain quantity, volume or amount for a certain period of time. The importation of goods in excess of the established quota is not possible or is accompanied by the application of special conditions, such as very high duties.
  • Licensing is the process of regulating foreign economic activity through permits issued by the state for the export or import of goods in prescribed quantities for a certain period of time. Licensing is the most common form of non-tariff restrictions.
  • Other economic methods of non-tariff regulation are of lesser importance and will be considered in detail when studying the relevant topics.
  • Administrative (non-economic) methods are based on the use of state rules, regulations, prohibitions, through which the state directly influences the subjects of foreign economic activity, regulates various aspects of their activities in the interests of the state: prohibitions on the import and export of certain goods, phytosanitary and veterinary requirements, technical requirements and requirements for certification of goods, state monopoly on the import-export of certain goods, etc. At the same time, these measures can be used both for their intended purpose and for indirect indirect influence on the subjects of foreign economic activity. For example, technical requirements and certification requirements for goods should primarily ensure the safety of domestic consumers, and can also be used to discriminate against imported goods in favor of domestic ones using specific quality standards, overestimated safety standards, etc.
  • In essence, administrative methods contradict the nature of market relations and therefore the scope of their application should be relatively narrow. But in practice this does not happen, they are widely used, primarily because of their ease of use and effectiveness.
  • 2. Current trends in customs regulation of foreign economic activity
  • To understand modern tendencies customs regulation of foreign trade, it is necessary, first of all, to consider the current state of world trade.
  • As shown in the previous question, the current stage in the development of world trade relations began after the end of World War II. It was characterized by significant changes in the world economic structure. The leading role in the world was taken by the United States, under the influence of whose policies many international organizations were created, and above all, the World Trade Organization (WTO). Its goal and objectives largely reflected the goals and objectives of the United States at that time - the widespread liberalization of trade in order to ensure the sale of goods around the world. Most of the less developed countries have largely become hostages of such policies.
  • Conventionally, the foreign trade policy of an economically developed country can be characterized as follows: the country is trying to ensure the sale of its goods, and therefore it is interested in the fact that potential consumers of its goods would not resort to excessively tough protective measures. This was the main idea behind the creation of the WTO - an organization that sets liberal standards for foreign trade policy. The situation of a country with a low level of development (such as the Republic of Belarus) in this case can be illustrated as follows:
  • The arrows show the desire of our trading partners to sell us as many goods as possible. Their desire should not be regarded as purely hostile, because we, in turn, have the same interests in relation to them.
  • As we already know from the previous question, liberal trade relations are beneficial for developed countries (exporters), while less developed ones are forced to defend themselves. At the same time, it is important to be able to protect your domestic market. Membership in an organization such as the WTO imposes a lot of restrictions on this opportunity.
  • Economically developed countries, forming through the WTO, the world trade system are interested in the most liberal trade relations. Although the WTO assumes mutual liberalization, it must be understood that in this case the most developed countries cannot suffer from the actions of underdeveloped countries, which, in turn, by opening their market to foreign goods, can largely lose their economic independence.
  • Thanks to the efforts of the WTO, the average value of customs duties in developed countries from 1945-1947. until the end of the 80s. decreased from 40-60% to 3-5%, i.e. 10 times. In addition, the WTO imposes significant restrictions on the use of non-tariff trade defense measures. In general, we can say that this period of time is characterized by the expansion of free trade ideas to almost the entire world.
  • Different countries have completely different approaches to foreign trade policy. For example, the former republics of the USSR, such as Moldova and Uzbekistan, joined the WTO in 1993 (despite the fact that they were formed as independent states in 1991). For more than 15 years of membership in the WTO, they have not demonstrated significant economic success, rather the opposite.
  • Other countries (including the Republic of Belarus) are pursuing a much more balanced foreign trade policy - without refusing in principle to join the WTO, they are conducting lengthy and serious preparations to minimize the negative impact of foreign competition. Ukraine joined the WTO in the summer of 2008. Russia has completed the main cycle of negotiations on WTO accession and, in principle, could already join it, but so far has refrained from the last step. Obviously, it is not yet confident in its ability to fully use the benefits of WTO membership and resist foreign competition in its market.
  • At the same time, China, having joined the WTO in 2005 (a process that took 10 years to complete), has made significant progress in terms of foreign trade and is fully enjoying the benefits of WTO membership. First of all, the fact that all other WTO member countries cannot take any special protective measures against cheap Chinese goods.
  • Currently, more than 150 countries are members of the WTO and officially adhere to liberal approaches to foreign trade policy, none of them, including the founders of the WTO, use the free trade policy in its purest form and do not hesitate to use all possible means to protect their interests ( even those not authorized by the WTO) if the need arises.
  • Summing up a brief review of the current state of development of world trade, we can say that it is primarily formed under the influence of the following factors:
  • All major economically developed countries are members of the WTO.
  • As a result of WTO membership, most countries cannot fully determine their trade policy on their own - they are bound by obligations with other WTO members.
  • Most developed countries have low import duties and no export duties.
  • But the world is changing and over the past 10 years there have been significant changes in the terms of world trade. They are connected with the fact that the countries - economic leaders (USA, EU, Japan, etc.) pursued a policy of shifting the production of the bulk of consumer goods to countries with cheap labor and raw materials - China, Malaysia, Brazil, Argentina, etc. As a result such a policy is currently the most developed countries from producers (exporters) have become consumers (importers). But the rules of trade have not changed, and, as we already know, they are beneficial primarily to exporting countries. As a result, the founding countries of the WTO became hostages (victims) of the rules of world trade created by them.
  • Having low rates of customs duties, they cannot fully protect their economy. Those. we can talk about an objective decrease in the value of tariff regulation - low rates cannot be real barriers to goods from China and other countries (a duty rate of 5% is not an obstacle to goods that are 200% cheaper than domestic ones). Under such conditions, developed countries try to defend themselves by applying hidden measures of non-tariff regulation - various kinds of obstacles to the sale and consumption of goods on the market of the importing country (by introducing quality certification of goods and production (ISO 2000, etc.), very strict quality standards, etc.). d.). We can say that everything said is fully true for the Republic of Belarus.
  • Such changes in world trade led to the emergence of a new type of state foreign trade policy - modern mercantilism. It is characterized by an increase in the role of the state in regulating foreign trade (ie, in fact, in strengthening protectionism). But the policy of the state in this case is largely determined by various economic and industrial groupings (lobbyists) who claim significant privileges. These privileges are primarily expressed in the establishment of very high rates of duties on individual goods (the so-called tariff peaks). The use of tariff peaks provides selective protection for individual industries or enterprises at a relatively low overall customs tariff level.
  • Modern mercantilism as an intermediate type of economic system is an economy in which ownership of property is very different from a normal market economy. Here it primarily depends on the privileges received - if they exist, production is functioning successfully, and if the privileges end (for example, as a result of change of the political leadership of the country), such property loses its attractiveness and price. Such a system allows inefficient enterprises to function for some time, as a result of which consumers are forced to purchase low-quality and expensive domestic goods (and why should they be of high quality and cheap). Obviously, such a policy can be beneficial only to a very limited circle of people (those who were able to lobby their interests before the government) and disastrous for the country's economy as a whole.
  • Therefore, under the new mercantilism:
  • The prevailing opinion is that in difficult economic conditions the welfare of the people can only be achieved through state regulation, and the actions of the state often replace or distort the market mechanism.
  • A foreign trade policy is being pursued that contributes to the isolation of the country, covered by the slogan of "self-reliance".
  • In the political sphere, democratic institutions are subject to the influence of constantly changing power groups.
  • In a complex set of trade and political methods in recent years. there is a tendency to expand the forms of state regulation of foreign trade with the help of means that affect the functioning of the domestic economy. Domestic economic and administrative levers are increasingly being used to regulate imports and exports and thus complement the traditional methods of foreign trade regulation.
  • In addition, branches and subsidiaries of TNCs, large companies and their branches are interconnected by a system of agreements on the distribution of markets, prices and terms of sale, protection of trademarks and patents. These agreements are concluded at the intercompany level and information about them, as a rule, is not made public. Thus, although TNCs do not "erect" trade and political barriers, the mentioned agreements create obstacles for imports no less tangible than those that are formed with the help of conventional trade and political barriers. This private monopoly protectionism, which is one of the specific features of modern foreign economic policy, has been called the restrictive practice of monopolies.
  • The formation of large monopolistic associations (concerns, trusts, etc.) led to serious changes in the policy of protectionism, expressed in the emergence of a new direction, the so-called super-protectionism. Its difference from protectionism of free competition lies in the fact that if at the pre-monopoly stage protectionism, as a rule, was aimed at protecting the weakest, non-competitive sectors of the economy from foreign competition, then monopolistic super-protectionism began to protect precisely the most developed, powerful, most monopolized industries. The purpose of this kind of policy was to enable the heavily protected sectors of the economy to receive monopoly high profits in the domestic market due to the high level of prices, relying on which to launch an offensive (using low prices) in the world market in order to oust competitors. In this regard, this kind of policy is also called offensive (aggressive) overprotectionism.
  • We briefly reviewed the current trends in the development of world trade. As can be seen, the instruments of modern foreign trade policy are distinguished by a significant variety and will be considered in detail when studying the relevant topics. But in general, it can be said that the current trends in world trade are characterized by a decrease in the value (effectiveness) of tariff regulation and a corresponding increase in the role of non-tariff regulation. At the same time, hidden measures of non-tariff regulation are of particular importance.
  • The modern foreign trade policy of the Republic of Belarus is characterized as "moderate protectionism".
  • 3. Limits and conditions for the effective application of tariff and non-tariff measures to regulate foreign economic activity
  • With all the variety of approaches to foreign trade policy, there are nevertheless certain criteria for choosing specific instruments for its implementation. Primarily. this is the simplest and most effective tool to achieve your goal. Also important is the possibility of using a particular instrument in connection with the country's international obligations (for example, WTO membership) or the risk of retaliation by trading partners.
  • First of all, the main (and recommended by the WTO) measures to regulate foreign economic activity are tariffs. They affect foreign economic activity indirectly, through the price of goods. It is also influenced by the following factors:
  • elasticity of demand for a product;
  • possibility of production and consumption of domestic analogues;
  • availability of equal conditions for the import and sale of goods by all participants in foreign economic activity;
  • efficiency of customs administration (for example, a significant amount of goods are imported from the Russian Federation illegally into the Republic of Belarus. Under such conditions, the effectiveness of tariff measures is significantly reduced).
  • But the main condition for the effectiveness of the customs duty is its compliance with the difference in prices for domestic goods in the domestic market and the price of a similar product in the world market. If the duty compensates for this difference in prices (or exceeds it), the duty may perform a protective function.
  • For example, a domestic-made TV costs $120 on the domestic market, and a similar imported TV costs $100 on the foreign market. Under such conditions, the customs duty must be at least 20%:
  • 100$ + 100$ * 20% = 120$

customs duty

  • Many imported goods similar in consumer properties are produced in the Republic of Belarus or their production can be organized in our country on economically favorable terms. But some goods can enter the domestic market only through imports from other countries. These include natural resources missing in the Republic of Belarus, tea, coffee, tropical fruits, etc. In addition, the volume of consumption of a particular product by the domestic market should be taken into account. With insignificant consumption, its production in the Republic of Belarus may be possible, but not economically feasible.
  • For goods that have domestic counterparts, duties should be established taking into account the ratio between world and national costs of production of goods and prices for it. These ratios can differ significantly for different goods, which predetermines the need for differentiation of customs duty rates by groups and types of goods. With regard to mass imported goods, customs duties may be established for specific goods or products, taking into account their individual characteristics.
  • Recall that the economic basis for the value of import customs duties is the ratio between world and national prices for imported and similar domestic goods.
  • If customs duties are set in accordance with the current price ratio, then they level the conditions for competition and do not create advantages for certain goods. Such duties perform a stabilizing function.
  • Import duties may be set higher than the difference between world and national prices. In this case, they will perform a protectionist function, limiting the admission of imported goods to the domestic market, and at a high level of customs duties, they will practically prohibit this import (the so-called prohibitive customs duties).

If the value of the customs duty is significantly less than the specified price difference, it will not perform a protective function and the duty cannot be an effective instrument of foreign trade policy. But, as a rule, at the same time, the country is not entitled (due to WTO membership or the danger of retaliatory sanctions) to significantly increase the rates of customs duties. At present, this phenomenon is ubiquitous.

Customs duties set below the difference between world and national prices create favorable conditions for the import of goods and their function can be considered as stimulating the import of goods. By applying such rates of customs duties, the state intensifies competition in the domestic market. As a rule, this is accompanied by a decrease in prices for goods and forces domestic producers to produce competitive products.

  • Customs duties applied to goods that do not have domestic analogues can serve as an incentive for their production (processing) in the country. For example, the cost of processed and prepared coffee is several times more expensive than raw coffee beans. With a significant volume of consumption of such a product by the domestic market, it is advisable to export raw coffee and its subsequent processing within the country.
  • And, naturally, any duty performs a fiscal function, providing budget revenues.
  • Based on the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:
  • The level of the duty itself, beyond comparison with the level of world and national prices for goods, does not reflect the function performed by the duty.
  • If different goods are subject to the same duties, this does not mean that they all perform the same function.
  • The amount of duties should be adjusted taking into account the changing conditions of competition for goods of foreign and domestic producers in accordance with the priorities of the state's economic policy.
  • If different countries have the same rates of customs duties, this does not mean that they perform the same functions.
  • Import duties tend to be higher in countries with less competitive economies, national production costs higher, and quality below world levels. Developing countries apply higher import duties than economically developed countries. By this, developing countries protect their industry from the competition of economically developed countries.
  • Export (export) customs duty is levied on goods exported outside the customs territory of a state (group of states). As a rule, export customs duty is applied by states with underdeveloped economies or states with rich reserves of natural resources. Export customs duties are applied for the purpose of monopoly on the production or sale of any product, conservation of national resources, in order to reduce their export to a certain limit. At the same time, the state redistributes in its favor part of the income received from the export of natural resources.
  • However, export duties are contrary to the nature of market relations, since their collection increases the price of exported goods and reduces their competitiveness in the world market. This may lead to a refusal to purchase exported goods, which will lead to negative processes in the national economy. Export duties are of limited use and a number of countries that used to levy this type of duty have now waived them.
  • Since the main constraint on the possibility of applying export duties is the world market prices for a particular product, under certain conditions, favorable circumstances may arise for replenishing the state's foreign exchange reserves. For example, in the Russian Federation in 2004, budget revenues from export customs duties exceeded revenues from imports of goods (including import customs duties, excises and VAT). This is explained by high world prices and demand for the main objects of Russian export - oil and natural gas.
  • Transit duty is charged for the transportation of foreign goods through the customs territory of the country. The customs tariffs of most states (including the Republic of Belarus) do not provide for the collection of transit customs duties.

Tariff regulation measures can be effective under the following conditions:

  • sufficiently high rates of customs duties (the amount of the duty should depend on the difference in prices in the external and internal markets);
  • the customs duty should be applied for its intended purpose (for example, in the Republic of Belarus the fiscal component of duties is large, when the duty does not initially play a regulatory role);
  • ensuring unconditional compliance with trade rules by all participants in foreign economic activity (for example, illegal import of goods creates unfavorable business conditions for law-abiding importers);
  • the absence of significant restrictions on the ability to sell imported goods on the domestic market (for example, excessive requirements for certification and quality level and the associated time and cost of the importer may prevail over the willingness to pay customs duties).
  • In practice, the so-called “price-quality” ratio of a product is also important, when the buyer’s choice is determined not only by the value of the price of the product, but also by its quality, guarantee, level of service, prestige of the brand, etc.
  • The previously considered changes in the terms of foreign trade and the decrease in the effectiveness of tariff regulation have led to an objective (forced) increase in the role of non-tariff measures. Non-tariff measures are considered more effective for the following reasons:
  • they directly affect the ability of the subject of foreign economic activity to carry out foreign trade operations;
  • non-tariff measures are generally not bound by any international obligations. At the same time, the scope of their application is fully regulated by the national legislation of the country;
  • non-tariff measures are more convenient in achieving the desired result in foreign economic policy;
  • they make it possible to take into account the specific situation in international trade and apply adequate protection measures for the required period;
  • non-tariff methods are not an additional tax burden for the population.

An important note: on the other hand, non-tariff measures do not allow the state additional income in the form of customs payments.

The practice of applying non-tariff regulation measures is very diverse. They are used especially effectively by developed countries: the EU, the USA.

effective tariff customs foreign trade


Literature


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Bobylev N.K. Change of sanctions for violations of customs rules provided for federal law dated August 20, 2004 No. 118-FZ "On Amendments to the Code Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses and the Customs Code of the Russian Federation” // “Jurist”, 2005, No. 4.

Borisov A.N. The powers of the police transferred from the federal bodies of the tax police // Law and Economics, No. 10, 2013.

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Petrukhina T.G. Bringing legal entities to responsibility for false declaration // Law and Economics, 2006, No. 1.

Semenova O. Confiscation for illegal movement of goods and (or) vehicles across the customs border of the Russian Federation // Law, No. 5, 2004.

Stepanov K.S. The concept of the object of evasion from payment of customs duties levied on an organization or individual // "Russian investigator", 2006, No. 1.

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Customs control of goods subject to non-tariff measures of regulation of foreign economic activity: A practical guide. M. "PRIOR", 2003.

Tatarinov A.E. Problems of qualifying violations by individuals of the rules for placing goods and vehicles under the customs regime of temporary importation and non-compliance with the conditions of such a regime // Lawyer, 2006, No. 6.

Khalipov S.V. Customs law (Customs regulation of foreign economic activity). M.: Mirror. M. 2003.

Chermyaninov D.V. On the issue of administrative penalties applied by the customs authorities of the Russian Federation to violators of the licensing system in the customs business // "Jurist", No. 1, 2003.


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