Characteristics of vowels by row and rise. Classification of English speech sounds

vowel sounds

Vowels, as already noted, are purely tone sounds, without any overtone of noise. The vibrations of the vocal cords are the source of sound during the pronunciation of vowels. Passing through the pharynx or nasal cavity, the voice acquires a special timbre. In the epiglottal cavities, differences between vowels arise. These differences are due to changes in the volume and shape of the resonator cavities. The speaker achieves such transformations through the movement of the lips, tongue and movable lower jaw.

The classification of vowels is based on three features:

1) lip involvement;

2) the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate;

3) the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward horizontally.

In the Russian literary language, there are only six vowel sounds that can be pronounced in isolation, outside a word or syllable: [a], [o], [u], [e], [s], [i].

By the participation of the lips vowels are divided into rounded (or labialized - from lat. labium "lip") and non-rounded (non-labialized). Labialized sounds include the sounds [o] and [y], and the degree of labialization [y] is higher. The rest of the vowels are unlabialized.

According to the degree of elevation of the tongue distinguish vowels top lift[and], [s], [y], in the formation of which the language occupies the highest position; vowels medium rise[e], [o], during the formation of which the language almost does not move from its original position, and the vowel bottom lift[a], in the formation of which the tongue and lower jaw occupy an extremely lower position.

According to the degree of language advancement forward or backward set off vowels front row[i], [e], during the formation of which the tongue moves forward, its front part rises; vowels middle row[s], [a], during the formation of which the tongue slightly moves forward, rises with the middle part during the formation of [s], or lies flat during the formation of [a]; back vowels - [o] and [y] - are formed by raising the back of the tongue to the back palate.

In its simplest form, the table of Russian vowels is a triangle.

There are other, more complex schemes, for example, the trapezoid of vowels (see L.L. Kasatkin. Modern Russian language. Phonetics)

However, much more vowel sounds stand out in the flow of speech - 4-5 times more than those placed in our table. At the same time, the quality of vowels depends mainly on two factors: the position of the vowel in relation to the stressed syllable and the hardness/softness of adjacent consonants.

Let's denote [t] - any solid consonant;

Any soft consonant;

[a] - any vowel of a phonetic triangle;

under stressthe quality of a vowel sound is determined by:

1. In syllables like [a], , the quality of the vowel does not change: [o] - [os], [nose], [y] - [y] ho, [spirit].

2. In syllables of the type, under the influence of the preceding soft consonant, the vowel at the beginning of articulation is pronounced with a higher rise and a covered mouth: [m’ ۠ al], [l’ ۠ ukl<], [с ’ ۠ ol], [b’ ۠ silt], [n’ ۠ el].

Z. In syllables like - under the influence of the subsequent soft consonant, the same changes occur at the end of the articulation of the vowel: [with ۠ l’ ], [RU ۠۠ l’ ], [drank ’], [la ۠ n '], [she ۠ hundred ۠ ]whether, [at ۠ ]lei, [at’ ۠ and].

4. - between two soft consonants, the described articulation of the vowel is preserved throughout the entire sound: [l’ ۠ about ۠ n’ ], [m’ ۠ a ۠۠ t’ ], [l’ ۠ at ۠ b’ um], [w’ ۠ email’ ].

In unstressed positions the quality of vowels depends on:

A) from the place of the sound in relation to the stress;

b) from the position at the beginning / not at the beginning of the word;

c) from the quality of neighboring consonants, especially the previous one.

Unstressed vowels are different from stressed quantitatively and qualitatively.

quality differences are differences in timbre. Differences quantitative are, that unstressed vowels are usually shorter than stressed vowels and pronounced with less force. In this regard, stressed vowels are called full vowels, unstressed - reduced and vowels.

There is also a difference between unstressed vowels, which is due to their place in relation to stress and position in the syllable. A. A. Potebnya proposed a formula that conditionally estimates the strength of stressed and unstressed syllables in units. The strength of the stressed vowel corresponds to 3 units, the vowel of the first pre-stressed syllable 2, other unstressed syllables - 1: mess[b’ and e spa’ adjk] 1-2-3-1; retraining[P’ and Er’ and E pdga b tofk)] - 1-1-1-2-3-1; compelled[forced’ and e ny ъ j ] - 3-1-1-1.

The strength of an unstressed vowel also depends on the following conditions. An open syllable is equal to the first pre-stressed one: to attack - 2-1-2-3; vice versa[na ba mouth] - 1-2-2-3; stork [ai E st] - 3-2. The strength of the stressed final open syllable fluctuates, it can be equal to 1 and 2 units: a cap[hat)] 3-1 and [hat b] - 3-2. Unstressed vowels, estimated at 2 units, are reduced l-th degree, estimated at 1 unit - reduced 2nd degree.

To reduced 1st degree refer vowels [e and], [and e], [s b], [ Λ], [а ъ]. In the speech stream, these vowels occur in the absolute unstressed beginning of a word, in an uncovered unstressed syllable within a word, in the 1st prestressed syllable.

[e and]- middle sound between [e] and [and], closer to [e]; quite rare, since it is characteristic of the older orthoepic literary norm (the so-called "ekanya"): v[e and] sleep, r[e and] dy, b[e and] ret. However, the modern literary language is characterized by "hiccups" - pronunciation [and uh]- a sound close to [and]: in [and e] sleep, r [and e] dy, b [and e] ret. Therefore, in transcription, one sign is often used - [and e] - to denote the front vowel of the upper middle rise, pronounced in the absolute unstressed beginning of the word, in the uncovered unstressed syllable in the middle of the word and in the 1st pre-stressed syllable: [and E skate’ ] - search, [pii E skΛv’ ik] – search engine, [and E tash] - floor, [s "and Ezhu] - sitting, [with’ and ed’ eju] - gray hair, [n "and E so] - nickel.

In the position after a solid consonant in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, a sound appears[sb]- shortened [s], the sound of the middle row of the upper-middle rise: [py b l’ um] - dusty, [tsy b n’ e j ] - chains, [shy bj one hundred j ] – sixth. This sound is also found in the 2nd pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables: cheese maker- [syb pΛ var], soap maker- [we lΛ var], ears- [ears bj], skis- [skiing b] .

Vowels [Λ] and [а ъ] close enough. Both are medium-low rise, but [a b]- the middle row, a sound closer to [a], and [ Λ] – non-labialized mid-back vowel, middle between [o] and [a], closer to [a]. Since the difference between them is small, one sign is used in transcriptions; we traditionally use the sign [ Λ]: [ Λrl’ other b j] - aquiline, [ Λbr’ and E cos] - apricot,[inΛr’ it’ ] - cook, [svΛn’ it’ ] – call,[kjΛp’ and Er Λt’ if] - cooperative. As you can see, this vowel occurs in the same positions: in the absolute unstressed beginning of a word, in an uncovered unstressed syllable in the middle of a word, and in the 1st prestressed syllable after a hard consonant. ’

To reduced 2 -th degree refer vowels[b] and [b]. They are close to each other, so that some transcription systems drop the sign [b] and use one "seam" sign: [ ә] after hard consonants and [ ۠ ˙ ә] after soft. However, in the textbook for the 2nd grade of V.V. Repkin "Russian language" it is [b] and [b] that are used. These sounds appear in all other unstressed syllables. Sound [b] middle between [s] and [a], one of the most frequent sounds of the literary language: [par Sun ] - locomotive, [shlΛshy] - huts, [in’ and E but j ] – water, [toΛrov ] - cow. Sound[b] more anterior, appears after soft consonants: [n’ rr’ and E in’ ol ] - translated, [b’ rr’ and E sta ] - birch bark, [P’ rr Λg’ and] - pies, [toΛrov’ b] - cow, [l’ ehh’ b]- easier, [t’ zhy b lo ] - hard. The qualitative differences between stressed and unstressed vowels are due to the fact that unstressed vowels are articulated less energetically than stressed ones. The tongue occupies a position closer to the neutral position occupied by the tongue during a speech pause. In unstressed positions, only sound [y], as a rule, is not replaced by a qualitatively different sound: [uh’ ], [dry’ j ], [p about ’ l’ at ], however, such a change can be observed in some word forms. For example, in a shock position after in the endings: [with’ and’ n’ ju ] - blue, [in’ and E h’ uh’ pH’ ju ] - evening.

Taking into account sounds in unstressed positions and in positions between soft consonants, the table of Russian vowels can be represented as follows:

Of course, this table is incomplete, there are other, more accurate (and simpler) classifications of vowels.

Topic: Vowels and their classifications

Vowels are musical tones formed as a result of the passage of a weak air stream without an obstacle with a general spilled tension of the speech apparatus.

Tovowel lassification

The basis for the classification of vowel sounds is

1) the position of the tongue (i.e., the place and degree of elevation of the tongue);

2) participation or non-participation of the lips;

3) participation or non-participation of the palatine curtain;

4) the duration of the sound, or longitude;

5) completeness of articulation and some others

In the formation of vowels, the most active organ of speech is the tongue, which makes movements in two directions - horizontal moving forward or backward, and vertical, rising or falling.

These directions in the movements of the tongue are interconnected: moving forward or moving back, the tongue simultaneously rises to a greater or lesser extent to the hard palate. However, for a clearer characterization of vowels, it is advisable to take into account each direction of language movement separately.

1) By the position of the language:

A) at the place of elevation of the tongue (along the row) vowels are distinguished

a) front

b) average and

c) back row.

When forming vowels front row the entire body of the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue rests against the lower teeth, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to one degree or another to the hard palate. These vowels include Russian [and] [e], German [ ü ] [ ü ber]; [ ö ][ ö ffnen].

When forming vowels middle row the body of the tongue is somewhat pushed back, and its entire back is raised high to the palate. At the same time, the tip of the tongue also rises somewhat. This is how Russian vowels are formed [s] and [ a]:in the word [ garden].

When pronouncing vowels back row the entire body of the tongue is pushed back, the back of the back rises to the soft palate, and the tip of the tongue drops and somewhat moves away from the lower teeth. Russian back vowels are [ at] and [ about], German [ a:] in the word [ ka:m] "came".

and], [s] [y] and you will feel the difference between the front, middle and back vowels.

B) according to the degree of elevation of the tongue , or according to the degree of opening of the mouth (by lifting) they distinguish

a) high vowels, or closed, narrow vowels: [ and], [s], [y];

b) medium vowels - [uh], [about];

c) low vowels, or open, wide vowels - [a].

Pronounce the sounds in sequence [ and], [e], [a]. Notice how the mouth gradually opens wider and wider as the lower jaw drops. If we pronounce the sounds in the reverse order, then the mouth will gradually close, and the lower jaw will approach the upper lip. At the same time, feel how the tongue rises to varying degrees with one or another of its parts to the palate.

Table 1. Classification of Russian vowels

Note: For general tables of vowels according to Swift and according to the IPA (International Phonetic Association), see pages 185 and 188-189 of the textbook on introduction to linguistics (M., 2002).

3) According to the position of the lips, all vowels are divided into two groups:

a) labialized, or rounded. When formed, their lips are pulled forward and rounded: [OU], German: [ ü ], [ ö ];

b) unlabialized, or undestroyed. When formed, their lips do not stretch forward and do not round: [ and], [e], [a].

4) According to the position of the soft palate, or palatine curtain:

a) nasalized, or nasal, during the formation of which the palatine curtain is lowered, that is, it is in a neutral position, and the passage to the nasal cavity is open. Nasal vowels are found in some modern Romance (eg French, Portuguese) and Slavic (Polish) languages; in antiquity, all Slavic languages ​​had nasal vowels. In modern Russian, nasal vowels are possible only when the nasopharynx is deformed.

b) clean(oral, non-nasalized, or non-nasal). When pure vowels are formed, the palatine curtain is raised and pressed against the back wall of the pharynx, the passage to the nasal cavity is closed, and it does not serve as an additional resonator. Most vowels in the languages ​​of the world are pure.

5) By duration, or longitude, vowels are:

a) long and

b) brief.

In Russian, stressed vowels are usually longer. In German, English, Czech, longitude and shortness are a very important differential feature of vowels: English: it [ it], eat [ i: t]; German: im [ im], ihm [ i: m].

6) according to the complexity of articulation (or composition), vowels are divided into

a) monophthongs and

b) polythongs ì diphthongs [ ai], [ au]: [ n ai t] night; [ d a u n] down

î triphthongs fire

Monophthongs are characterized by articulatory and acoustic uniformity; when articulating a vowel, the organs of speech do not change their position.

A diphthong is a complex sound, the result of the fusion of two, and sometimes three, vowels in one syllable. A diphthong is a sound pronounced with a single articulatory movement; diphthongs are longer than monophthongs. Diphthongs are available in English, German, French.

Triphthong is the fusion of three vowels within one syllable.

Diphthongs can be descending and ascending. At descending diphthongs, the first element is syllable-forming; the intensity of pronunciation is strong at first, then weakens; at ascending diphthongs, the second vowel is syllable-forming; the intensity of pronunciation is weak at first, then increases.

There are diphthongs true and false. The true diphthongs - both components are equal, both are clearly pronounced, but do not break up into two syllables. At false diphthongs only one element is syllabic : May

Vowel characteristic

[and] - vowel, stressed, front row, upper rise, non-labialized.

The classification of the sounds of English speech is based on the analysis of the methods of pronunciation. So, when pronouncing vowel sounds, the vocal cords vibrate, and the air stream from the lungs freely passes through the entire speech apparatus. Therefore, all vowels are voiced sounds of a musical tone. The differences between them are determined by the characteristics of the speech resonator: the lips can be rounded, neutral or stretched, the tongue can be pushed forward, pulled back, raised up.

The consonant sounds of English speech are formed by overcoming the barriers created by the organs of speech on the path of the air flow, therefore, all of them, to one degree or another, have a noise component. This may be, for example, cotton, which arose when the lips suddenly opened, initially completely blocking the air outlet. Example sounds:

[p] , [b] , [P] , [b] .

Or the hiss that occurs when air passes through the gap created by the organs of speech, sounds:

[ʃ ] , [ʒ ] , [w] , [with] .

Classification of English consonants.

It is convenient to consider the pattern of pronunciation of English consonants using the table shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. Classification of English consonants and their Russian counterparts

The basic principles of the classification of English monophthongs are shown in the diagram in Fig. 2.

Depending on the position of the language, vowel sounds are classified into:

1. Front vowels
2. Back vowels
3. Mixed vowels

Front vowels: [i:, ɪ, e, æ], when pronouncing which the body of the tongue is advanced forward, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth.

Back vowels: [ɔ, ɔ:, u:, u, ᴧ] - the body of the tongue is pulled back, the tip of the tongue moves away from the lower teeth.

Mixed vowels: [ə:, ə ] - the tongue is evenly raised, and the entire back of the tongue lies as flat as possible.

Among the back vowels, there are those pronounced with rounded lips. labialized: [ɔ ] , [ɔ: ] , [u:] , [uuə] , [ou] , [ɔɪ ]

Vowels: [ i:] , [ɪ ] , [e] , [eɪ] , [ɪə ] are pronounced with stretched lips. For other vowels: [ ʌ ] , [æ ] , [ɑ ] , [ə: ] , [ə ] , as well as the first elements of diphthongs [ aɪ] , [au] , [ɛə ] is characterized by a neutral position of the lips.

According to the degree of elevation of the tongue in the oral cavity, monophthongs are divided into high, medium and low.

For high vowels [ i:] , [u:] , [ɪ ] , [u] , also called closed, and the first elements of diphthongs [ ɪə ] , [uə] the bulk of the tongue rises high in the oral cavity.

Sound [ uy] . The lips are slightly rounded, but not drawn out. Because of the tongue pulled back [ u] has, as it were, a faint echo of [ s] .

To make a long sound [ u:] lips need to be rounded more than [ u] , but don't pull. Open the mouth less, and pull the tongue out more than for [ u] .

When pronouncing the sound [ i:], long, as in the word willow, lips stretch, as if in a smile. The tip of the tongue is at the bottom teeth. The middle part of the tongue is raised.

Sound [ ɪ ] is more concise, like an unstressed [ and] in the word game . The tip of the tongue is slightly drawn away from the lower teeth. Lips stretched less than for [ i:] , and the mouth is ajar wider.

When pronouncing middle vowels: [ e] , [ə: ] , [ə ] , [ɔ: ] and the first elements of diphthongs [ eɪ] , [ou] , [ɛə ] the bulk of the tongue is located in the middle of the oral cavity, the middle and back parts of the tongue are evenly raised.

When pronouncing the sound [ e] the tip is at the base of the lower teeth, the middle back of the tongue arches forward and upward, but not too high. This sound is somewhat similar to the Russian sound [ uh] in words this, purpose . If the tongue touches the lower teeth, [ e] and [ ɪ ] will turn into Russian [ and] and [ e], and if the tongue is pulled too far away from the lower teeth, English sounds [ e] and [ ɪ ] will be similar to the sounds of Russian speech [ s] and [ uh]

When pronouncing the English sound [ ə: ] the flat tongue is slightly raised, the tip of the tongue touches the base of the lower teeth, the lips are tense and stretched, slightly opening the teeth, especially when pronouncing this sound after [ w] in words like world, work . There is no similar sound in Russian. The English pronounce the sound [ ə: ] at the moment of difficulty with the answer. In such cases, we pronounce the sound [ mm...]

When pronouncing the sound [ ə ] lips are in a neutral position. It is always unstressed, the shortest in English, before the consonant [ n] and [ l] often disappears altogether. May have shades depending on the influence of neighboring sounds, at the beginning or middle of a word often resembles a very short [ ə: ] , at the end of a word like [ ʌ ] : col our, aft er .

Low vowels (open): [ ʌ ] , [æ ] , [ɑ: ] , [ɔ ] and the first elements of diphthongs [ ɔɪ ] , [aɪ] , [au] are pronounced with the tongue low in the mouth.

Sound [ æ ] Unlike [ e] is pronounced with the mouth as open as possible, the lower jaw slightly lowered. Sound duration [ æ ] longer than [ e] . It occupies an intermediate position between long and short vowels.

The same open position of the mouth is characteristic of the sound [ ɔ ] , resembling a very short Russian [ o] , but much more open. The lips are slightly rounded, although they do not stretch forward. The tip of the tongue is moved away from the lower teeth, and the back is slightly raised.

When pronouncing a long vowel [ ɔ: ] mouth solution is narrower than for [ ɔ ] , lips are rounded, but not protruding. The back of the tongue rises higher than for [ ɔ ] . You can not pronounce this sound with an initial overtone [ at] , characteristic of Russian [ about], so the tongue should be pulled back, and the lips should be significantly rounded.

When pronouncing the sound [ ɑ: ] the root of the tongue is pulled back and down, the sound comes from the depths of the throat, reminiscent of the sound uttered when the doctor examines the throat. The tongue lies very low in the mouth. the tip of the tongue is drawn away from the lower teeth.

Sound [ ʌ ] is much shorter than Russian [ a] and resembles an unstressed [ a] in the word d a la . It is pronounced briefly and abruptly, as if through teeth. The tongue is slightly pushed back. The distance between the jaws is less than when pronouncing [ ɑ: ] .

Vowel sounds, like consonants, are subject to influence from the immediate environment. For example, the sound [ æ ] in the words hand and land sounds different, because, being surrounded by alveolar consonants in the second case, it is actually pronounced with the tip of the tongue located in the region of the alveoli, and not at the lower teeth.

Similarly, consonants are influenced by vowels. In the words two and tea sound [ t] has different shades due to subsequent labialized [ u:] and pronounced with stretched lips [ i:] .

The issues of working out the nuances of pronunciation of letter combinations are beyond the scope of this manual, but need their share of attention throughout the entire learning process. By the way, the diction of many is not perfect even in their native language.

Vowels

A brief description of the vowels and consonants of the Italian language.

Letter N

· nbeforeb, preads like sound[m], including at the intersection of words.

In becco, in pista, un bimbo

· nbeforef, vreads like nasal [m], including at the intersection of words.

inferno, inverno, in verita

· nbeforec, g, qreads like nasal [n].

vanga, stanchezza, dunque

letter combinations

· gli combination

coniglio, fogliame, pagliaccio, medaglia

· Combination gn

sogno, mignolo, vigna, stagno

· Combinations sci, sсe

- lettersi, e soften the combinationsc and read

sciroppo, scempiaggine, viscido, scelto, scenografia

- Letterh serves as a separator in combinations:

schi-– paschi

sche-– sceletro

- Letteri softens the combination of preceding consonants, but is not readable in the following letter combinations:

scia– [ša] – sciagurato

scio– [šo] – sciopero

sciu- [šu] - sciupato

scie- [še] - scienza

- Letterh serves as a separator in these combinations:

schia-– schiavo

schio-– schioppo

schiu-– schiuma

schie-– maschietto

Vowels differ according to the position of the tongue: front-lingual and back-lingual. According to the position of the lips: open and closed. As well as the position of the soft palate. In this manual, we do not consider the participation of the soft palate in the formation of sounds, since this issue, in this case, refers to the field of vocal technique, and not vocal phonetics. When pronouncing Italian vowels in speech, the back of the tongue rises to a greater or lesser extent towards the soft palate, which, obviously, is not always advisable in singing, as it can interfere with the correct formation of sound.

There are seven vowels in Italian: a, e open, e closed, i, o open, o closed, u.

A common feature of Italian vowels is their general tension and clarity of articulation. This is especially important to remember when pronouncing unstressed vowels, which are articulated very clearly, almost as well as in a stressed position.

There is no diphthongoidism in Italian, that is, changes in the sound quality characteristic of Russian vowels. The degree of rise of the tongue remains unchanged, strictly fixed, so that they remain uniform throughout their sound. .

Front vowels include: a, e open, e closed, i. Their common feature is that when they are pronounced, the body of the tongue is advanced forward, its tip lies at the lower teeth.

The most open vowel in Italian. When pronouncing it, the tongue rests on the lower teeth, but does not move forward. The lips take on a shape close to an oval, the jaw is lowered down.

Read the exercise, making sure that the sound quality of A does not change depending on the striking/unstressed position.

Ama, sana, casa, amara, paga, rara, avara, gamba, barba, stampa, strada, fava, stanza, patata, cara, brama, basta.

The most closed and tense prelingual vowel of the Italian language. When pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue rests against the lower teeth with force. The edges of the lips are strongly stretched to the sides.

Read the exercise, making sure that the sound quality of I does not change depending on the drumming / non-stressing position.

Ira, mira, riva, riga, vita, rima, chi, vi, ivi, via, prima, firma, vista, carina, amica, farina.

Vowel sounds- these are speech sounds, during the formation of which the outgoing air stream does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, and therefore, acoustically, they are characterized by the predominance of a musical tone, or voice.

There are 6 vowels in Russian: [a], [o], [e], [i], [s], [y]. They are heard most clearly under stress .

When pronouncing vowels, the shape and volume of the oral cavity may change. These changes depend on the participation or non-participation of the lips and the movement of the tongue vertically (the degree of elevation of the back of the tongue) and horizontally (the place of the rise of the back of the tongue).

By the participation of the lips All vowel sounds are divided into two groups: vowels rounded or labialized (from lat. labium- lip), - [o], [y] and vowels undead, or unlabialized , - [and], [e], [s], [a].

When the sounds [o], [y] are formed, the lips are rounded and stretched forward. In the formation of sounds [a], [e], [i], [s], lips do not take an active part. The sound [o] differs from [y] in a lesser degree of elongation and rounding of the lips. This can be easily seen by muscle sensations, pronouncing in a row, for example, the sounds [a] - [o] - [y].

By degree of ascent top, middle and bottom lift.

At education high vowels, which include the sounds [and], [s], [y], the language is raised to the greatest extent.

Vowel formation bottom lift, which is the sound [a] in Russian, is characterized by a minimal rise in the language.

Vowels medium rise, which include the sounds [e], [o], according to the degree of elevation of the tongue, they occupy an intermediate position between the vowels of the upper and lower rise.

It is easy to replace different degrees of tongue elevation by pronouncing, for example, the sounds [y] - [o] - [a] in a row.

Classification of vowels (together with reduced ones) according to articulation (Shcherba's triangle)

By place of ascent back of the tongue distinguish vowels front, middle and back row .

At education front vowels, which include the sounds [i], [e], the front part of the back of the tongue moves towards the hard palate.

Vowel formation back row- these are the sounds [y], [o] - occurs when the back of the back of the tongue moves towards the soft palate.

Vowels middle row[s], [a] at the place of the rise of the tongue occupy an intermediate position between the front and back vowels.

To make sure that when forming front, middle and back vowels, the language articulates in different parts, you can pronounce in a row, for example, the sounds [and] - [s] - [y].

So, depending on the articulation in the Russian language, six different sounds are clearly perceived by ear: [i], [s], [u], [e], [o], [a].

Longitude. In a number of languages ​​(English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or close articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are opposed by the duration of pronunciation, i.e. for example, short vowels are distinguished: [a], [i], [u] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], .

Diphthongization. In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs.

Monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically homogeneous vowel.

Diphthong- a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special sound of speech, in which the articulation begins differently than it ends. One element of a diphthong is always stronger than another element. There are two types of diphthongs - descending and ascending.

At descending diphthong the first element is strong and the second is weaker. Such diphthongs are typical for Eng. and German. lang.: time, Zeit.

At ascending diphthong The first element is weaker than the second. Such diphthongs are typical of French, Spanish and Italian: pied, bueno, chiaro. For example, in such proper names as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

There are no diphthongs in Russian. The combination “vowel + th” in the words “paradise”, “tram” cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declining this quasi-diphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for a diphthong: “tram-em, ra-yu”. But in Russian there are diphthongoids.

Diphthongoid- this is a stressed heterogeneous vowel, having at the beginning or end an overtone of another vowel, articulatory-close to the main, stressed. There are diphthongoids in Russian: the house is pronounced "DuoOoM".

triphthongs- this is a combination of three vowels (weak + strong + weak), pronounced as one syllable, for example, in Spanish: cambiáis - change.

13. Classification of consonant sounds.

The method of formation of consonant sounds (noisy: explosive, fricative, affricates; sonorous). Place of education (labial, lingual: anterior lingual, middle lingual, posterior lingual; lingual). Additional articulation of consonants (palatalization, nasalization).

Consonants- these are speech sounds, consisting only of noise, or of voice and noise, which are formed in the oral cavity, where the air stream exhaled from the lungs meets various obstacles, are called

There are 37 sound units in the consonant sounds of the Russian language, each of which in a certain position is capable of performing a meaningful function:

1) [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [h], [h "], [n] , [p "], [f], [f "], [k], [k"], [t], [t"], [s], [s"];

2) [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [p], [p"];

3) [x], [x "], [g], [w], [c];

4) [h "], [j];

5) [w̅"], [g̅"].

The classification of consonants is based on the opposition of some signs to others. In modern Russian, consonants are divided according to several classification criteria (acoustic and articulatory):

2) at the place of education;

3) according to the method of education;

4) by the presence or absence of palatalization ("mitigation", from lat. palatum- sky).

According to acoustic consonants differ according to the degree of participation of voice and noise . All consonants of the Russian language are divided into sonorous(from Latin sonorus- sonorous) and noisy.

Sonorant are characterized by the fact that in the composition of these sounds the voice prevails over the noise. In modern Russian, these include: [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [r], [r"], [j].

Noisy consonants are characterized by the fact that their acoustic basis is noise, however, there are noisy consonants, which are formed not only with the help of noise, but with some participation of the voice. Among the noisy differ deaf and voiced .

W smelly formed by noise accompanied by voice. In modern Russian, these include: [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [h], [h "], [zh], [zh̅"].

Deaf formed with the help of noise, without the participation of voice. When pronouncing, their vocal cords are not tense and do not fluctuate. In modern Russian, these include: [k], [k "], [p], [p"], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [f], [f "], [x], [x], [c], [h "], [w], [sh̅"].

Most of the noisy consonants of the Russian language are opposed by deafness - sonority: [b] - [p], [b "] - [p"], [c] - [f], [c "] - [f "], [d] - [t], [d "] - [t "], [s] - [s], [s "] - [s"], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], [g "] - [k"]; do not have pairs voiced voiceless consonants [w̅"], [c], [x], [x"], [h"].

Sounds [w], [w], [h], [u] - hissing , [h], [s], [c] - whistling .

According to articulation initial are way of education and place of education.

By place of education noise, according to which organs of speech take part in pronunciation, sounds are divided into labial and lingual.

a) Labial consonants in which obstruction formed by lips or lower lip and upper teeth. In Russian, labials are divided into labial ([b], [n], [m], [b "], [n"], [m"]) and labiodental ([in], [in "], [f], [f "]).

In the formation of labial sounds, the active organ is the lower lip, and the passive organ is either the upper lip (lip-labial sounds) or the upper teeth (labial-tooth sounds).

b) Depending on which part language creates a barrier, lingual consonants are divided into anterior lingual, middle lingual and posterior lingual.Language sounds make up the majority of all consonants: front-lingual are formed with the participation of the anterior part of the back of the tongue; middle language - with the participation of the middle part of the back of the tongue; posterior lingual - with the participation of the back of the back of the tongue.

In Russian to anterior lingual include [d], [t], [n], [h], [s], [l] and their corresponding soft sounds [d "], [t"], [n"], [h"], [ s"], [l"], as well as [c], [h"], [w], [sh̅"], [zh̅"].

As part of the anterior lingual, there are:

1) dental : [t], [t "], [d], [d "], [s], [s"], [s], [s"], [c], [n], [n"], [l], [l"];

2) palatine-dental : [w], [w̅ "], [g], [zh̅"], [p], [p"], [h"].

The division of anterior-lingual sounds into dental and palatine-dental sounds is made taking into account the passive organ. In this case, either the upper teeth or the base of the upper teeth serve as such a passive organ.

To middle language only [j] applies to the sound.

back lingual sounds are [g], [k], [x], [g "], [k"], [x"].

In some languages ​​there are lingual , which are divided into three groups: reed, for example, French [r]; pharyngeal- Ukrainian (g), German [h]; guttural: as separate sounds they are available in Arabic.

By way of education noise consonants are divided into:

BUT) explosive (closed) , during the pronunciation of which there is a complete closure of the organs of speech, with the force overcome by the air stream. These are [b], [n], [d], [t], [g], [k] and their corresponding soft variants [b "], [p"], [d"], [t"], [ g "], [k"].

B) slotted (fricative) , during the pronunciation of which the organs of speech are not completely closed, as a result of which a gap is formed through which air passes. Fractured consonants are also called graduate students (from Latin spiro- I breathe). In Russian, this is - [c], [c "], [f], [f"], [h], [h "], [s], [s"], [g], [zh̅"], [w], [sh̅ "], [x].

AT) affricates, when these consonants are pronounced, the speech organs close, forming a barrier, which is then torn apart by air, resulting in a gap. In this case, the closure and rupture are instantaneous. These are the sounds [h "] and [c]. When pronouncing the sounds [h "] and [c], it is necessary to strictly preserve two moments of articulation: bows and cracks. First, the tip of the tongue closes with the teeth (at the sound [c]) or with the front of the palate (at the sound [h "]), then the air with light explosions opens the speech organs, which causes a gap through which the air comes out with noise, therefore the sound [ts] consists, as it were, of the sounds [t] and [s] merged together, and the sound [h "] - of the soft sounds [t"] and [sh̅ "] merged together.

G) Trembling consonants, or vibrating , during the formation of which the active organs of speech vibrate. In Russian, these are the sounds [r] and [r "].

D) Connecting passages consonants, during the pronunciation of which the organs of speech are completely closed, but not interrupted by air, since the air passes through the nose or mouth. These are the sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n"]. So, when the sounds [l] and [l "] are formed, the front of the tongue closes with the upper teeth, but between the lateral edges of the tongue and the lateral teeth, gaps are formed through which air escapes. Therefore, the sounds [l] and [l "] are called lateral. When the sounds [m] and [m "] are formed, the lips close tightly, and when the sounds [n] and [n "] are formed, the tongue is tightly adjacent to the upper teeth; but the explosion does not is formed, since the air, without breaking the closed organs of speech, exits through the nose. Therefore, the sounds [m], [m "], [n], [n"] are called nasal.

Most of the consonant sounds of the Russian language are opposed to each other on the basis of hardness-softness: [b] - [b "], [p] - [p "], [c] - [c"], [f] - [f "], [d] - [d "], [t] - [t "], [l] - [l "], [m] - [m "], [n] - [n"], [r] - [r "], [s] - [s"], [g] - [g "], [x] - [x"], [k] - [k"]: [nose] - [n "osʹ] - nose - carried; [vos] - [v" os] - cart - carried; [rat] - [r "at] - glad - a row; [became] - [became "] - became - steel; [gave] - [gave "] - gave - distance; [brother] - [brother"] - brother - take.

When soft consonants are formed, an additional movement of the speech organs accompanying it is added to the main sound-producing movement: the middle part of the back of the tongue rises up to the hard palate, as with the sound [j], as a result of which the consonant acquires a special sound, which we conditionally call softness, and in transcription we characterize sound like palatalized. Have no couples and are only hard : [w], [w], [c], only soft : [Ж̅"], [ш̅"], [h"], [j].

Nasalization- a change in sound, consisting in the acquisition of a nasal timbre by the sound and caused by the raising of the palatine curtain and the exit of the voice simultaneously through the mouth and nose. Nasalization in the language can, for example, be subject to sounds (vowels and consonants) in a position before the nasals; with further development of nasalization, such sounds can turn into nasal ones, cf. Russian dialect mnuk instead of grandson. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, [õ], [ã], are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages ​​are non-nasal (formed when the palatal curtain is raised, blocking the path of air through the nose), but in some languages ​​(French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic), along with non-nasal vowels, nasal vowels are widely used.

Classification of consonants according to articulatory features

14. Changes in sounds in the flow of speech.

Combinatorial changes: assimilation, dissimilation, accommodation, diaeresis, haplology, epenthesis, metathesis. Positional changes: reduction of vowels, stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word, prosthesis.

Sounds do not exist in isolation from each other. They are in constant interaction and influence each other, causing various sound changes.

In the flow of speech, sounds are combined with each other, forming words, speech measures, phrases. The ability of sounds to combine with each other is called syntagmatics , and the combinations themselves
sounds - syntagmas .

Speaking in combination with each other, the sounds in some conditions retain their qualities, in others they change them. The ability of sound units to vary is called paradigm , a set of variants of one sound – paradigm : [s"n"eg / c"n"ek / s"n"iega / s"n"ieg"ir" / c"n"bΛv"ik], where [g], [g"], [k ] is the paradigm of sound [r], i.e. variant of the same sound [g]; [e], [ie], [b] - the paradigm of sound [e].

The concepts of the position of sounds are connected with the doctrine of syntagmatics and paradigmatics.

Position is the position of the sound in the word. Distinguish strong and weak sound positions.

Strong positions are called such positions of sounds in which the largest number of sounds differ: [house - tom / heat - ball // m "ir / cheese / sat / mush / rum / l" es //].

In weak positions, one of the correlative sounds is not distinguished: [here / sat / sΛdy / sΛvot//].