speech apparatus is a set of interacting human organs that are actively involved in the emergence of sounds and speech breathing, thereby forming speech. The speech apparatus includes the organs of hearing, articulation, respiration, and today we will take a closer look at the structure of the speech apparatus and the nature of human speech.
Sound formation
To date, the structure of the speech apparatus can be safely considered 100% studied. Thanks to this, we have the opportunity to learn how sound is born and what causes speech disorders.
Sounds are generated due to the contraction of the muscle tissues of the peripheral speech apparatus. Starting a conversation, a person automatically inhales air. From the lungs, the air flow enters the larynx, nerve impulses cause vibration and they, in turn, create sounds. Sounds add up to words. Words into sentences. And the proposals - in intimate conversations.
Speech, or, as it is also called, voice apparatus has two departments: central and peripheral (executive). The first consists of the brain and its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways, stem nuclei and nerves. Peripheral, in turn, is represented by a set of executive organs of speech. It includes: bones, muscles, ligaments, cartilage and nerves. Thanks to the nerves, the listed organs receive tasks.
Central department
Like other manifestations of work nervous system, speech occurs through reflexes, which, in turn, are associated with the brain. The most important parts of the brain responsible for speech reproduction are: the frontal parietal and occipital regions. For right-handers, this role is played by the right hemisphere, and for left-handers, the left hemisphere.
The frontal (lower) gyrus is responsible for the creation of oral speech. The convolutions located in the temporal zone perceive all sound stimuli, that is, they are responsible for hearing. The process of understanding the sounds heard occurs in the parietal region of the cerebral cortex. Well, the occipital part is responsible for the function of visual perception of written speech. If we consider in more detail the speech apparatus of the child, we can see that his occipital part is developing especially actively. Thanks to it, the child visually fixes the articulation of the elders, which leads to the development of his oral speech.
The brain interacts with the peripheral region through centripetal and centrifugal pathways. The latter send brain signals to the organs of the speech apparatus. Well, the first ones are responsible for delivering the response signal.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three more departments. Let's consider each of them.
respiratory department
We all know that breathing is the most important physiological process. The person breathes reflexively without thinking about it. The process of breathing is regulated by special centers of the nervous system. It consists of three stages, continuously following each other: inhalation, short pause, exhalation.
Speech is always formed on the exhale. Therefore, the air flow created by a person during a conversation performs articulatory and voice-forming functions at the same time. If this principle is violated in any way, speech is immediately distorted. That is why many speakers pay attention to speech breathing.
The respiratory organs of the speech apparatus are represented by the lungs, bronchi, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. The diaphragm is an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When it, together with the intercostal muscles, contracts, the chest increases in volume and inspiration occurs. Accordingly, when it relaxes - exhale.
Voice department
We continue to consider the departments of the speech apparatus. So, the voice has three main characteristics: strength, timbre and pitch. The vibration of the vocal cords causes the air flow from the lungs to be converted into vibrations of small air particles. These pulsations are transmitted to environment, create the sound of a voice.
Timbre can be called sound coloring. For all people, it is different and depends on the shape of the vibrator that creates vibrations of the ligaments.
Articulatory department
The speech articulatory apparatus is simply called sound-producing. It includes two groups of organs: active and passive.
active organs
As the name implies, these organs can be mobile and are directly involved in the formation of the voice. They are represented by the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw. Since these organs are composed of muscle fibers, they are amenable to training.
When the organs of speech change their position, constrictions and locks appear in various parts of the sound-producing apparatus. This leads to the formation of a sound of one kind or another.
The soft palate and mandible can rise and fall. With this movement, they open or close the passage to the nasal cavity. The lower jaw is responsible for the formation of stressed vowels, namely the sounds: "A", "O", "U", "I", "S", "E".
The main organ of articulation is the tongue. Thanks to the abundance of muscles, he is extremely mobile. The tongue can: shorten and lengthen, become narrower and wider, be flat and arched.
Human lips, being a mobile formation, take an active part in the formation of words and sounds. Lips change their shape and size, providing the pronunciation of vowel sounds.
The soft palate, or, as it is also called, the palatine curtain, is a continuation of the hard palate and lies at the top of the oral cavity. It, like the lower jaw, can rise and fall, separating the pharynx from the nasopharynx. The soft palate originates behind the alveoli, near the upper teeth, and ends with a small tongue. When a person pronounces any sounds other than "M" and "H", the veil of palate rises. If for some reason it is lowered or motionless, the sound comes out "nasal". The voice is raspy. The reason for this is simple - when the palate is lowered, sound waves, along with air, enter the nasopharynx.
Passive Organs
The speech apparatus of a person, or rather its articulatory department, also includes immovable organs, which are the support for the mobile ones. These are teeth, nasal cavity, hard palate, alveoli, larynx and pharynx. Although these organs are passive, they have a huge impact on
Now that we know what the human voice apparatus consists of and how it works, let's look at the main problems that may affect it. Problems with the pronunciation of words, as a rule, arise from the lack of formation of the speech apparatus. When certain parts of the articulatory department become ill, this is reflected in the correct resonation and clarity of pronunciation of sounds. Therefore, it is important that the organs that are involved in the formation of speech are healthy and work in perfect harmony.
The speech apparatus may be impaired by different reasons, since this is a rather complex mechanism of our body. However, among them there are problems that occur most often:
- Defects in the structure of organs and tissues.
- Incorrect use of the speech apparatus.
- Disorders of the corresponding parts of the central nervous system.
If you have speech problems, do not put them on the back burner. And the reason here is not only that speech is the most important factor in the formation of human relations. Usually people who have impaired speech apparatus not only speak poorly, but also experience difficulties in breathing, chewing food and other processes. Therefore, by eliminating the lack of speech, you can get rid of a number of problems.
Preparation of speech organs for work
In order for speech to be beautiful and relaxed, it needs to be taken care of. This usually takes place in preparation for public speaking when any hesitation and mistake can cost reputation. Speech organs are prepared in work with the aim of activating (tuning) the main muscle fibers. Namely, the muscles that are involved in speech breathing, the resonators responsible for the sonority of the voice, and the active organs, on the shoulders of which the intelligible pronunciation of sounds lies.
The first thing to remember is that the human speech apparatus functions better with proper posture. This is a simple but important principle. To make speech clearer, you need to keep your head straight and your back straight. The shoulders should be relaxed and the shoulder blades should be slightly flattened. Now nothing stops you from saying beautiful words. Getting used to the correct posture, you can not only take care of the clarity of speech, but also gain a more favorable appearance.
For those who, by the nature of their activities, speak a lot, it is important to relax the organs responsible for the quality of speech and restore their full working capacity. Relaxation of the speech apparatus is ensured by performing special exercises. It is recommended to do them immediately after a long conversation, when the vocal organs are very tired.
Relaxation posture
You may have already come across concepts such as posture and relaxation mask. These two exercises are aimed at muscle relaxation or, as they say, removal. In fact, they are nothing complicated. So, to assume a relaxation pose, you need to sit on a chair and bend forward slightly with your head bowed. In this case, the legs should stand with the whole foot and form a right angle with each other. They should also bend at right angles. This can be achieved by choosing the right chair. The arms hang down, with the forearms resting lightly on the thighs. Now you need to close your eyes and relax as much as possible.
To make rest and relaxation as complete as possible, you can do some forms of auto-training. At first glance it seems that this is a pose of a dejected person, but in fact it is quite effective for relaxing the whole body, including the speech apparatus.
Relaxation mask
This simple technique is also very important for speakers and those who, due to the specifics of their activities, talk a lot. There is also nothing complicated here. The essence of the exercise is the alternating tension of the various muscles of the face. You need to “put on” different “masks” on yourself: joy, surprise, longing, anger, and so on. Having done all this, you need to relax the muscles. It is not at all difficult to do this. Just say the sound "T" on a weak exhalation and leave the jaw in a free lowered position.
Relaxation is one of the elements of oral hygiene. Besides her, in this concept includes protection against colds and hypothermia, avoidance of mucosal irritants and speech training.
Conclusion
This is how interesting and complex our speech apparatus is. In order to fully enjoy one of the most important gifts of a person - the ability to communicate, you need to monitor the hygiene of the vocal apparatus and treat it with care.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Central speech apparatus…………………………………….3
Peripheral speech apparatus……………………………………4
Respiratory department …………………………………………….4
Voice Department…………………………………………………..5
Articulation department……………………………………..6
Nose…………………………………………………………...7
Mouth…………………………………………………………..8
Lips………………………………………………....8
Cheeks……………………………………………………9
Teeth……………………………………………………9
Solid sky……………………………………..10
Soft palate……………………………………….11
Language……………………………………………………11
The bottom of the oral cavity……………………………….12
Throat……………………………………………………..12
Pathology of the organs of speech……………………………………………….15
Cleft palate and lips…………………………………………15
Language defects………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………16
Defects of jaws and teeth…………………………………...17
Neuromuscular disorders……………………………..18
Infectious diseases of the oral cavity……………………..19
Stomatitis……………………………………………………….19
Angina……………………………………………………………..20
Tonsillitis………………………………………………………..23
Pharyngitis…………………………………………………………24
Laryngitis…………………………………………………………25
The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which peripheral and central speech apparatus .
The structure of the speech apparatus: 1 - brain: 2 - nasal cavity: 3 - hard palate; 4 - oral cavity; 5 - lips; 6 - incisors; 7 - tip of the tongue; 8 - back of the tongue; 9 - the root of the tongue; 10 - epiglottis: 11 - pharynx; 12 -- larynx; 13 - trachea; 14 - right bronchus; 15 - right lung: 16 - diaphragm; 17 - esophagus; 18 - spine; 19 - spinal cord; 20 - soft palate
The central speech apparatus includes:
cortical ends of analyzers (primarily auditory, visual and motor) involved in the speech act. The cortical end of the auditory analyzer is located in both temporal lobes, the visual one is in the occipital lobes, and the cortical section of the motor analyzer, which ensures the work of the muscles of the jaws, lips, tongue, soft palate, larynx, which also takes part in the speech act, is located in the lower sections of these convolutions;
the sensory speech-motor apparatus is represented by proprioceptors located inside the muscles and tendons involved in the speech act, and excited under the action of contractions of the speech muscles. Baroreceptors are located in the pharynx and are excited by changes in pressure on them when pronouncing speech sounds;
afferent (centripetal) pathways begin in proprioreceptors and baroreceptors, and carry the information received from them to the cerebral cortex. The centripetal path plays the role of a general regulator of all the activities of the speech organs;
cortical centers of speech are located in the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes predominantly in the left hemisphere of the brain. The emotional-figurative component of speech depends on the participation of the right hemisphere.
specific centers of speech (sensory - Wernicke and motor - Broca), responsible for fine sensory analysis and neuromuscular coordination of speech (Fig. 1)
The auditory motor (motor) center of Broca's speech is located in the posterior section of the second and third frontal gyri of the left hemisphere.
Rice. 1. Areas of motor and auditory analyzers
Languages in the cerebral cortex
1 - motor analyzer (anterocentral gyrus);
2 - motor (motor) center of speech (Broca);
3 - sensory center of speech (Wernicke)
subcortical nodes and nuclei of the trunk (primarily the medulla oblongata) are in charge of the rhythm, pace and expressiveness of speech;
efferent (centrifugal) pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles that provide the speech act. They begin in the cerebral cortex in Broca's center.
The trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw; facial nerve - facial muscles, including muscles that move the lips, puff up and retract the cheeks; glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is a sensitive nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and heart organs. The accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck, and the hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor nerves and tells it the possibility of a variety of movements.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections :
respiratory;
Speaking is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase. In the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to one more, the main one - gas exchange). Breathing at the time of speech is significantly different from normal when a person is silent. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation (while outside of speech, the duration of inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same). In addition, at the moment of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (without speech) breathing.
1 - nasal cavity; 2 - oral cavity; 3 - palate; 4 - nasopharynx; 6 - oral part of the pharynx; 6 - epiglottis; 7 - hyoid bone; 8 - larynx; 9 - esophagus; 10 - trachea; 11 - top of the left lung; 12 - left lung; 13 - left bronchus; 14-15 - pulmonary vesicles (alveoli); 16 - right bronchus; 17 - right lung
Larynx is a wide short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissues. It is located in the anterior part of the neck and can be felt from the front and sides through the skin, especially in thin people.
On the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis (attached to the thyroid cartilage). It consists of cartilaginous tissue in the form of a tongue or petal. Its front surface is facing the tongue, and the back - to the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during swallowing, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.
From above, the larynx passes into the laryngeal part of the pharynx. From below, it passes into the windpipe (trachea). On the sides of the larynx are large cervical vessels and nerves, behind - the lower part of the pharynx, passing into the esophagus.
The skeleton of the larynx consists of several cartilages (Fig. 2). At the base of the larynx lies the cricoid cartilage, on which sits the thyroid cartilage, which consists of two walls connected to each other at almost a right angle facing anteriorly. The walls of the thyroid cartilage diverging posteriorly enclose the signet of the cricoid cartilage, so that a cartilaginous tube is obtained, which serves as a continuation of the trachea. On top of the signet of the cricoid cartilage, two arytenoid cartilages are symmetrically located.
Fig. 2 Cartilaginous skeleton of the larynx: (A - in front; B - behind) 1 - trachea; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - thyroid cartilage; 4 - arytenoid cartilages; 5 - epiglottis
Fig3. Vertical incision through the larynx (the anterior half of the larynx is visible from the inside)
1 - epiglottis; 2 - scoop-epiglottic fold; 3 - thyroid cartilage; 4 - false vocal cord; 5 - blinking ventricle; 6 - true vocal cord (fold); 7 - cricoid cartilage; 8 - trachea
All these cartilages are interconnected by a whole system of muscles and ligaments. Particularly important for the formation of the voice are the internal muscles of the larynx, or vocal folds (Fig. 4). They look like two lips protruding towards each other. The vocal folds can either close, blocking the path of air entering the trachea, or open, forming the so-called glottis. During quiet breathing, the glottis is wide open
When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back between them there is a gap in the form of a small equilateral triangle, through which the exhaled stream of air passes. The vocal folds do not vibrate at the same time, but the friction of the air stream against the edges of a small triangular slit causes noise, which is perceived by us in the form of a whisper.
3) articulatory (or sound-reproducing ).
The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palate, alveoli, and pharynx. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are immobile.
Rice. 5. Profile of organs of articulation: 1 - lips. 2 - incisors, 3 - alveoli, 4 - hard palate, 5 - soft palate, 6 - vocal folds,
7 - the root of the language. 8 - back of the tongue, 9 - tip of the tongue
Nose .
The nose consists of the external nose (Fig. 6) and the nasal cavity with its paranasal sinuses. External nose consists of a bone-cartilaginous skeleton and soft parts.
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Fig.6. Skeleton of the external nose:
1 - nasal bone; 2 - lateral cartilage of the nose; 3 - large wing cartilage; 4 - nose wing; 5 - small alar cartilages; 6 - frontal process of the upper jaw
nasal cavity consists of two halves, separated from each other by the nasal septum . The posterior-upper part of the septum is bony, and the anterior-lower part is cartilaginous. Each of the two halves of the nasal cavity has four walls: upper, lower, inner and outer.
Fig7. Incision through the nasal cavity:
/ - lower shell; 2 - middle sink; 3 - upper shell; 4 - lower nasal passage; 5 - average stroke; 6 - upper nasal passage; 7 - maxillary sinus; 8 - lattice cells; 9 - main sinus; 10 - nasal septum
The nasal cavity has a number of accessory (paranasal) sinuses . They are cavities filled with air and are located in the bones involved in the formation of the walls of the nasal cavity. These sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity through openings located in the upper and middle nasal passages.
All paranasal sinuses are paired (Fig. 8.) In the frontal bones are the frontal sinuses; in the upper jaw - the maxillary, or maxillary, sinuses; in the main bone - sphenoid and in the ethmoid bone - ethmoid cells . The walls of the paranasal sinuses are lined with a thin mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the nasal mucosa.
Fig8. . The layout of the paranasal (paranasal) sinuses (A - in front. B - on the side):
1 - maxillary sinus; 2 - frontal sinus; 3 - lattice cells; 4 - main sinus
Mouth.
Lips represent a muscle roller (Fig. 9), formed circular muscle of the mouth. They are covered on the outside with skin, and on the side of the vestibule of the mouth - with a mucous membrane. Passing from the lips to the alveolar (cellular) processes of the upper and lower jaws, the mucous membrane fuses tightly with them and forms here gums.
^ Fig. 9. Muscles of the lips and cheeks:
1 - the muscle that raises the upper lip and wing of the nose; 2 - the muscle that actually raises the upper lip; 3 - small zygomatic muscle; 4 - muscle that raises the corner of the mouth; 5 - large zygomatic muscle; 6 - buccal muscle (muscle of trumpeters); 7 - circular muscle of the mouth; 8 - santorini muscle of laughter; 9 - muscle lowering the lower lip; 10 - muscle lowering the corner of the mouth; 11 - chewing muscle
Cheeks , like the lips, are a muscular formation (Fig. 9). The buccal muscle, otherwise called the trumpeter muscle, is covered on the outside with skin, and on the inside with a mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the lips. The mucous membrane covers the inside of the entire oral cavity, with the exception of the teeth.
Teeth are located in the form of two arcs (upper and lower) and are fixed in the alveoli (cells) of the upper and lower jaws (Fig. 10).
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Fig.10. Teeth of the upper and lower jaws:
1 - central incisor; 2 - lateral incisor; 3 - canine; 4 and 5 - small molars; 6, 7 and 8 - large molars (8 - wisdom tooth)
In each tooth, a crown protruding from the jaw cell and a root sitting in the cell are distinguished; between the crown and the root there is a slightly narrowed place - the neck of the tooth. According to the shape of the crown, the teeth are divided into incisors, canines, small molars and large molars. The incisors and canines belong to the front, or frontal, teeth, the molars to the back. The front teeth are single-rooted, the back teeth are two- or three-rooted.
Teeth first appear at 6-8 months after birth. These are the so-called temporary, or dairy, teeth. The eruption of milk teeth ends by 2.5-3 years. By this time, there are 20 of them: 10 in each jaw arch (4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small molars). Change of milk teeth to permanent begins in the 7th year and ends by the age of 13-14, with the exception of the last molars, the so-called wisdom teeth, which erupt in the 18-20th year, and sometimes later. Permanent teeth - 32 (16 teeth in each jaw arch, including 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small molars and 6 large molars).
The relative position of the upper and lower dentition with closed jaws is called bite. With a normal structure of the jaws and dental system, the upper dental arch is somewhat larger than the lower one, so that when the jaws close, the lower front teeth are slightly covered by the upper ones, and all the teeth of the upper row are in contact with all the teeth of the lower row. This bite is considered normal (Fig.11.).
Fig11. normal bite 
Solid sky - the bone wall separating the oral cavity from the nasal cavity is both the roof of the oral cavity and the bottom of the nasal cavity. In the anterior (larger) part of its hard palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillary bones, and in the posterior part - by the horizontal plates of the palatine bones. The mucous membrane covering the hard palate is tightly fused with the periosteum. A bone suture is visible along the midline of the hard palate.
^ Fig.12. Hard palate shape:
1 - cross section: a - normal sky; b - wide and flat sky; c - high and narrow sky; 2 - longitudinal section: a - domed sky; b - flat sky; c - cool sky
Soft sky serves as a continuation of the hard palate posteriorly; it is a muscular formation covered with a mucous membrane. The back of the soft palate is called sky curtain. When the palatine muscles are relaxed, the palatine curtain hangs freely down, and when they contract, it rises up and backwards. In the middle of the palatine curtain there is an elongated process - tongue.
Language - massive muscular organ. With closed jaws, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front of the tongue is movable, the back is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. In the movable part of the tongue, the tip, front edge (blade), lateral edges and back are distinguished. The intricately intertwined system of the muscles of the tongue (Fig. 13.), the variety of points of their attachment, provide the ability to change the shape, position and degree of tension of the tongue to a large extent. This plays not only a big role in the process of pronunciation of speech sounds, since the tongue is involved in the formation of all vowels and almost all consonants (except for lips), but also provides the processes of chewing and swallowing.
Fig13. Muscles of the tongue 1 - longitudinal muscle of the tongue; 2 - chin-lingual muscle; 3 - hyoid bone; 4 - hyoid-lingual muscle; 5 - awl-lingual muscle; 6 - styloid process
The muscles of the tongue are divided into two groups. Muscles of one group start from the bone skeleton and end in one place or another inner surface mucous membrane of the tongue. This group of muscles provides the movement of the tongue as a whole. The muscles of the other group, with both ends, are attached to various parts of the mucous membrane and, when contracted, change the shape and position of individual parts of the tongue. All muscles of the tongue are paired.
The first group of muscles of the tongue include:
1. genio-lingual muscle - pushes the tongue forward (protrusion of the tongue from the mouth);
2. sublingual-lingual - upsets the tongue down;
3. stylo-lingual muscle - being an antagonist of the first (genio-lingual), it draws the tongue into the oral cavity.
The second muscle group of the tongue includes:
1. superior longitudinal muscle - when contracted, it shortens the tongue and bends its tip upwards;
2. lower longitudinal muscle - contracting, hunches the tongue and bends its tip down;
3. transverse muscle of the tongue - reduces the transverse size of the tongue (narrows it and sharpens it).
In the mucous membrane covering the upper surface of the tongue, there are so-called taste buds, which are the end apparatus of the taste analyzer. Located at the root of the tongue lingual tonsil, often more developed in children. The tongue receives motor innervation from the hypoglossal nerve (XII pair), sensitive - from the trigeminal, taste fibers - from the glossopharyngeal (IX pair).
Floor of the mouth formed by the muscular-membranous wall, which runs from the edge of the lower jaw to the hyoid bone. The mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, passing to the bottom of the oral cavity, forms a fold in the midline - the so-called frenulum of the tongue.
Pharynx.
In accordance with the three cavities located anterior to the pharynx and communicating with it, there are three sections of the pharynx: upper, or nasopharynx, middle, or oropharynx, and lower, or laryngopharynx (Fig.14.).
Nasopharynx limited from above by the base of the skull, its back wall is the spine. The nasopharynx does not have an anterior wall and communicates here with the nasal cavity through the choanae. The lower boundary of the nasopharynx is a horizontal plane passing at the level of the hard palate. When breathing, this border is conditional, and when swallowing, the soft palate moves back, touches its back edge to the spine and separates the nasopharynx from the middle part of the pharynx.
The walls of the nasopharynx are lined with a mucous membrane containing many mucous glands and covered with ciliated epithelium.
^ Fig.14. Scheme of the structure of the nasal cavity, mouth and pharynx: / - nasal cavity; // - mouth; III - pharynx: a - nasopharynx, b - oral part of the pharynx, c - laryngeal part of the pharynx; 1 - hard palate; 2 - soft palate lowered; 2a - soft palate raised; 3 - tongue; 4 - upper central incisor; 5 - alveolar process; 6 - arch of the hard palate; 7 - lower central incisor; 8 - language; 9 - tip of the tongue; 10 - back of the tongue; 11 - the root of the tongue; 12 - epiglottis; 13 - thyroid cartilage; 14 - larynx and upper part of the trachea; 15 - the beginning of the esophagus
The middle (oral) part of the pharynx, or oropharynx , serves as a downward continuation of the nasopharynx. Its lower boundary is a horizontal plane passing through the root of the tongue. The back wall is formed by the spine. In front, the middle part of the pharynx communicates with the oral cavity through a wide opening called pharynx .
Zev limited from above by the soft palate, from below by the root of the tongue, and from the sides by the palatine arches. The palatine arches are folds of the mucous membrane in which muscle fibers are embedded. There are two palatine arches: anterior, or palatoglossal, and back, or palatopharyngeal. Niches are formed between these arches, in which there are palatine tonsils (right and left). On the posterior wall of the pharynx, in the thickness of the mucous membrane, there are accumulations of lymphoid tissue in the form of grains or granules. The same accumulations of lymphoid tissue are found on the lateral walls of the pharynx in the form of strands or rollers (lateral ridges of the pharynx), as well as near the mouths of the Eustachian tubes. The four tonsils described above (lingual, nasopharyngeal and two palatine), together with accumulations of lymphoid tissue on the walls of the pharynx, form the so-called pharyngeal lymphoid apparatus, or pharyngeal lymphoid ring acting as a protective barrier against infection entering the body through the nose and mouth.
The lower (larynx) part of the pharynx, orlaryngopharynx , funnel-shaped narrows downward and passes into the esophagus. In front, it borders on the larynx. In the upper part of the laryngeal part of the pharynx there is no anterior wall (the entrance to the larynx is located here), and in the lower part the posterior wall of the larynx serves as the anterior wall. The mucous membrane of the middle and lower parts of the pharynx is covered with a flat epithelium.
The innervation of the pharynx is quite complex. Motor fibers are obtained from the third branch of the trigeminal nerve, from the vagus (X pair) and accessory (XI pair) nerves; sensitive - from the second and third branches of the trigeminal nerve, from the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
In the pharynx, two pathways cross - respiratory and digestive. The role of "shooters" in this crossing is played by the soft palate and epiglottis .When breathing through the nose, the soft palate is lowered and air passes freely from the nose through the pharynx into the larynx and windpipe (the epiglottis is raised at this time). During swallowing, the soft palate rises, touches the back of the pharynx and separates the middle part of the pharynx and nasopharynx; the epiglottis at this time descends and covers the entrance to the larynx. Thanks to this mechanism, the possibility of pushing the food bolus into the nasopharynx and nose, as well as food entering the larynx and windpipe, is excluded.
Pathology of the organs of speech.
Cleft palate and lips.
Depending on the severity of the disorder embryonic development varying degrees of anomaly. Lighter are crevices upper lip, which can be unilateral or bilateral. A unilateral cleft is usually located on a line corresponding to the gap between the canine and the lateral incisor, more often on the left side. It can be complete when it passes through the entire lip and connects to the nasal opening, or incomplete, reaching half or two-thirds of the lip. Bilateral cleft is located most often symmetrically and divides the upper lip into three parts - two lateral and one middle.
With cleft lips, there are also anomalies in the location and number of teeth.
In more severe cases, simultaneously with a cleft of the upper lip, a cleft of the alveolar process is observed, unilateral or bilateral, depending on whether there is a unilateral or bilateral non-union of the premaxillary (incisive) bone.
The most severe anomaly is the complete bilateral splitting of the upper lip, alveolar process, hard and soft palate throughout their entire length. Complete splitting of the lip, alveolar process and palate can also be unilateral, when only one side of the premaxillary bone is fused with the alveolar process of the upper jaw. With a complete bilateral cleft, the premaxillary bone usually protrudes forward.
The cleft palate runs along the midline. In the mildest cases, there is only a hint of a splitting of the palate, expressed in a bifurcation of the tip of the tongue.
Sometimes a defect in the muscular layer of the soft palate is covered by a normal mucosa, and in some cases the mucosa can also cover a fissured defect of the hard palate. Such palatine clefts are called submucosal (submucosal).
Congenital fissured defects of the lip and palate significantly disrupt the nutrition of newborns. The child cannot suckle the breast and nipple, food easily enters the nasal cavity, the child chokes, chokes, coughs and vomits. Ingestion of food into the respiratory tract causes inflammation of the bronchi and lungs. These complications and malnutrition can be a cause of death among these children. In the future, survivors develop speech disorders: it acquires a nasal connotation, becomes deaf and insufficiently intelligible.
Treatment cleft lip and palate is predominantly surgical. It consists in the plastic closure of the existing defect by means of a flap taken from adjacent soft tissues, or by suturing non-united parts. The term of surgical intervention depends on the severity of the violation of physiological functions and on the condition of the child. Sewing of a cleft lip is shown in the first months and even the first days of life. However, most surgeons perform surgery for cleft palate at the age of 2 "/2-3 years, i.e. in the period when the eruption of milk teeth ends, and some specialists postpone this operation for even more late dates- up to 7-8 years. In cases where the operation cannot be performed for some reason (the child's serious condition, the parents' disagreement with the operation, the lack of sufficient material for plasty), the closure of the defect of the hard and soft palate is carried out using specially manufactured prostheses - obturators (from Latin obturare - to plug ).
The prosthesis, of course, is a less perfect way to close a gap defect than surgery, since due to the growth of the child, the prosthesis has to be redone or replaced with a new one all the time. It requires constant care, and, in addition, being a foreign body in the mouth, the prosthesis causes discomfort.
Language defects . Anomalies in the development of the language include, first of all, complete his absence, or aglossia (from Greek a - negation and lat. glossa - language). Birth defects also include language underdevelopment, when it is too small ( microglossia), and abnormally large tongue (macroglossia), when, as a result of muscular hypertrophy, the tongue can be enlarged so much that it does not fit in the mouth and protrudes outward between the teeth. Sometimes an enlarged tongue is not congenital, but occurs as a result of a tumor (lymphangioma).
In the past, the role of shortening of the frenulum of the tongue in the pathology of speech was greatly exaggerated. It was believed that this defect underlies many speech disorders up to stuttering. However, the length of the frenulum of the tongue is subject to large individual fluctuations, and given the great adaptive capacity of the tongue as a muscular organ, there is no reason to consider shortening of the frenulum as a frequent cause of significant limitation of tongue mobility. When such a restriction does exist, it is often eliminated with the help of special speech therapy exercises in the form of appropriate gymnastics of the tongue. The need for surgical intervention in such cases, of course, disappears.
^ Jaw and teeth defects . Defects in the development of the jaws and dentition are most often manifested in the form bite anomalies.
Bite anomalies can have various options.
1. Prognathia (from the Greek pro - forward and qhnatos - jaw) - the upper jaw and upper dental arch are strongly advanced forward, the lower front teeth are located far behind the upper ones (Fig. 15a). Due to the lack of natural support in the form of antagonistic teeth, the lower front teeth elongate and sometimes reach the hard palate. Normal ratios between chewing (molars) teeth are preserved.
2. Progenia (from the Greek pro - forward and geneion - chin) is characterized by a significant development of the lower jaw. The anterior teeth of the lower jaw are located in front of the corresponding teeth of the upper jaw (Fig. 15b).
3. Open bite characterized by the presence of a free gap between the teeth of the upper and lower jaws in their closed position. In some cases, a gap is formed between the front teeth, while the back teeth can close normally. This is the so-called anterior open bite (Fig. 15c); in other cases, there is a gap between the lateral (molars) teeth, and the front teeth articulate normally - lateral open bite (Fig. 15d).
^ Fig.15a Prognathia, Fig.15b. Progenia, Fig. 15th century Anterior open bite, Fig. 15g. Lateral open bite
In addition to the listed bite anomalies, there are other deviations in the structure of the dentition: rarely set teeth; the absence of certain teeth; change in the shape of the teeth (wedge-shaped teeth); deformed edges of the teeth (serrated teeth, teeth with a semilunar notch); teeth that are oblique or located outside the dentition; extra teeth etc.
All defects in the structure and arrangement of teeth can be accompanied by pronunciation disorders, most often in the form of lisping (sigmatism).
Elimination of bite anomalies and defects in the location of the teeth is carried out by methods orthodontics .Alignment of the dentition is achieved by the imposition of special wire splints or temporary prostheses in the form of the so-called inclined plane. The most effective regulation of the jaws and teeth at the age of 5-6 to 10-12 years, i.e. in the period when the bones are still very plastic and easily amenable to mechanical stress.
Extra teeth or teeth growing outside the dentition are removed. In the absence of natural teeth, artificial ones are inserted in the form of permanent or removable dentures.
For all defects of the oral cavity, surgical and orthodontic treatment is combined with special speech therapy classes. So, with defects in the jaws and teeth, it is sometimes possible to improve pronunciation by training alone.
^ Neuromuscular disorders . Violations of the normal mobility of the lips and cheeks are usually observed as a result of paralysis of the facial nerve. One of the causes of damage to the facial nerve is inflammation of the middle ear, since the facial nerve passes through the bone canal in the immediate vicinity of the tympanic cavity. Of the other causes of facial paralysis, mechanical damage and influenza infection should be noted, in the development of which cooling (“cold”) plays an important role. In some cases, facial paralysis may be one of the manifestations of complex organic lesions of the central nervous system (for example, hemorrhages, tumors).
In most cases, facial paralysis is temporary and with appropriate treatment (electrification, drug therapy), mobility is fully restored.
Sometimes paralysis is persistent, but in these cases, a combination of physiotherapy, physiotherapy exercises and speech therapy exercises can achieve significant compensation.
Tongue loss can result from paralysis of the hypoglossal nerve. The causes of such paralysis are different: trauma, compression of the nerve by a tumor, infectious diseases (flu, tonsillitis), diseases of the central nervous system. Paralysis of the hypoglossal nerve is more often unilateral. When protruding, the tongue deviates to the healthy side, all movements of the tongue on the side of the lesion are difficult; the paralyzed half of the tongue gradually decreases in size due to the onset of muscle atrophy.
Speech disorders are usually expressed indistinctly, manifested in the form of a violation of the pronunciation of lingual consonants and are eliminated by speech therapy techniques.
Infectious diseases of the oral cavity.
Stomatitis .
Classification of stomatitis:
Traumatic stomatitis (when exposed to physical or chemical traumatic factors on the mucous membrane).
Infectious stomatitis is a consequence of the impact of a viral, bacterial or fungal infection on the mucous membrane. A special type of infectious stomatitis is specific stomatitis, which develops with tuberculosis, syphilis and other specific diseases.
Symptomatic stomatitis is a manifestation of diseases of the internal organs.
catarrhal stomatitis
ulcerative stomatitis
aphthous stomatitis
allergic stomatitis
At treatment the following principles must be observed:
minimal trauma to the oral mucosa: food should not be excessively hot or cold, it should be of such a consistency that it does not have to be chewed for a long time and hard;
after eating, rinse your mouth with a disinfectant solution, for example, a slightly pink solution of potassium permanganate;
numerous ulcers are the reason for the obligatory visit to the doctor, especially if the temperature is elevated.
Angina.
The disease begins with a feeling of dryness and a feeling of soreness in the throat, then there are sharp pains when swallowing. The temperature is usually elevated, and in young children, angina usually occurs at very high temperature(up to 40 ° and above), accompanied by the appearance of purulent raids on the tonsils.
Due to severe pain when swallowing, children often refuse food. The swallowing act occurs when the soft palate is not completely attached to the back wall of the pharynx (due to severe pain, the muscles that lift the soft palate do not fully contract), as a result of which liquid food and saliva enter the nose. The voice becomes nasal. The inflammatory process often spreads to the mucous membrane of the pharynx and Eustachian tubes, which leads to hearing loss, usually temporary.
With a favorable course, angina lasts from 4 to 7 days, after which the patient recovers quickly. In some cases, in severe cases, the disease becomes protracted.
Catarrhal angina begins acutely, in the throat there is a burning sensation of dryness, perspiration, and then a slight pain when swallowing. Worried about general malaise, weakness headache. The temperature is usually subfebrile. Pharyngoscopically, the tonsils are hyperemic, somewhat enlarged, in places they can be covered with a thin film of mucopurulent exudate. Tongue dry, lined. Often there is a slight increase in regional lymph nodes. The illness usually lasts 3-5 days.
Follicular tonsillitis begins with an increase in body temperature to 38-39 C. Severe pain in the throat immediately appears when swallowing, often radiating to the ear. Depending on intoxication, there is a headache, back pain, fever, chills, general weakness. In the blood - neutrophilic leukocytosis, eosinophilia, elevated ESR. As a rule, enlarged regional lymph nodes, their palpation is painful, the spleen may be enlarged. Children may have vomiting, meningism, clouding of consciousness, diarrhea. There is hyperemia of the soft palate, tonsils, on the surface of which numerous round, somewhat elevated yellowish or yellowish-white dots are visible. The duration of the illness is 5-7 days.
Lacunar tonsillitis occurs with the same symptoms as follicular, but more severe. With it, against the background of the hyperemic surface of the enlarged tonsils, yellowish-white plaques appear. The duration of the disease is 5-7 days. In some cases, follicular or lacunar angina can develop according to the type of fibrinous angina, when bursting festering follicles are the basis for the formation of the film, or with lacunar angina, the fibrinous film spreads from the area of \u200b\u200bepithelial necrosis at the mouths of lacunae.
Phlegmonous tonsillitis is quite rare. Its occurrence is associated with purulent fusion of the tonsil area. The lesion is usually unilateral. The tonsil is hyperemic, enlarged, its surface is tense, its surface is painful.
Herpetic sore throat often occurs in children. Its causative agent is the Coxsackie A virus. The disease is highly contagious, transmitted by airborne droplets and rarely by the fecal-oral route. Herpetic sore throat begins acutely, fever appears, the temperature rises to 38-40 C, there are sore throats when swallowing, headache, muscle pain in the abdomen; there may be vomiting and diarrhea. In the area of the soft palate, uvula, on the palatine arches, on the tonsils and the posterior pharyngeal wall, small reddish bubbles are visible. After 3-4 days, the bubbles burst or dissolve, the mucous membrane becomes normal.
Ulcerative necrotic angina Simanovsky-Vincent. Morphological changes are characterized by necrosis of the pharyngeal surface of one tonsil with the formation of an ulcer. Complaints about a feeling of awkwardness and a foreign body when swallowing, putrid breath, increased salivation. Body temperature is usually normal. In the blood, moderate leukocytosis. Regional lymph nodes are enlarged on the affected side. The duration of the disease is from 1 to 3 weeks, sometimes lasting several months
Treatment: bed rest, disinfectant rinses, heat on the neck (bandage, warm compress), drug treatment as prescribed by a doctor. Sick children who are in a team (nursery, kindergarten, boarding school) must be placed in an isolation room. In the family, contact with the patient should be avoided; he should have separate dishes, which must be boiled after use.
After a sore throat, various complications of a local and general nature are often observed. From local complications highest value has acute inflammation of the middle ear, which occurs as a result of the transition of the inflammatory process from the pharynx to the ear through the Eustachian tube, as well as an abscess near the tonsils. Common complications include rheumatism, endocarditis, inflammation of the kidneys.
Chronic tonsillitis .
In some cases, chronic tonsillitis can occur without previous tonsillitis. Subjective sensations in chronic tonsillitis outside the period of exacerbation are weakly expressed and boil down to "awkwardness" in the throat, mild pain when swallowing, and sometimes bad breath. Often, in chronic tonsillitis, there is a prolonged slight increase in temperature in the evenings (the so-called subfebrile temperature is 37.2-37.5 °). On examination, there is a slight reddening of the tonsils and pharynx. When pressing on the tonsils, whitish plugs with an unpleasant odor are often released from them, and sometimes liquid pus.
In chronic tonsillitis, exacerbations often occur in the form of tonsillitis. The main danger of chronic tonsillitis is that, being constant source intake of infection and toxins into the body, it supports and worsens the course of complications that occur with angina - rheumatism, endocarditis, kidney disease, etc.
Treatment consists in lubricating the tonsils or washing them with various disinfectant solutions, irradiating with ultraviolet radiation through a tube, a low-energy laser, UHF on the cervical regional lymph nodes.
Pharyngitis.
Pharyngitis classification
Spicy
Viral
Bacterial
Fungal
Allergic
Traumatic
Caused by exposure to irritants
Chronic
Hypertrophic (granular)
atrophic
mixed form
The reasons chronic pharyngitis: repeated acute diseases of the pharynx, chronic diseases of the nose and its paranasal sinuses, tonsils, prolonged irritation of the mucous membrane of the pharynx when smoking, alcohol abuse, exposure to dust, harmful gases, hypothermia. Manifestations: The clinical picture of chronic pharyngitis is not characterized by an increase in temperature and a significant deterioration in the general condition. Sensations are characterized by patients as dryness, itching and a feeling of a lump in the throat, which causes a desire to clear your throat or clear your throat. The cough is usually persistent, dry and easily distinguished from the cough that accompanies tracheobronchitis. Discomfort in the throat is often associated with the forced need to constantly swallow the mucus located on the back of the throat, which makes patients irritable, interferes with their usual activities and disturbs sleep. . Treatment: elimination of causative factors; rinsing or irrigating the pharynx with alkaline solutions (inhalation), lubricating the back wall of the pharynx with Lugol's solution in glycerin.
At atrophic pharyngitis the mucous membrane of the pharynx looks thinned, dry, often covered with dried mucus. Injected vessels can be seen on the shiny surface of the mucous membrane. At the time of exacerbation, these changes are accompanied by hyperemia and swelling of the mucous membrane, but usually the scarcity of objective findings does not correspond to the severity of symptoms that disturb patients.
Laryngitis.
The main symptom of chronic laryngitis is dysphonia (voice change). This symptom is often accompanied by complaints of a sensation of "tickling", scratching in the throat and dry cough. Dysphonia can be expressed in varying degrees (from a slight violation of the sonority of the voice to a sharp hoarseness and even aphonia); it depends on the uneven swelling of the vocal cords and on the adhesion of lumps of thick, viscous mucus to the vocal cords; with a dry (atrophic) form of laryngitis, dry crusts form on the ligaments, sometimes making it difficult not only to speak, but also to breathe.
At treatment chronic laryngitis, first of all, care must be taken to eliminate the causes that contribute to the development of a chronic inflammatory process in the larynx.
As treatment procedures, spraying, inhalation, lubrication of the larynx, infusion of medicinal substances into the larynx are used.
Acute laryngitis . Acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx, or acute laryngitis, develops most often as part of a diffuse lesion of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract with influenza and the so-called seasonal catarrh of the upper respiratory tract. The occurrence of an inflammatory process in the larynx is promoted by general and local cooling (staying in a damp and cold room, inhaling cold air through the mouth), and predisposing factors are voice strain and smoking.
The disease manifests itself in a feeling of dryness, scratching in the throat, then a dry cough joins, the voice becomes hoarse, and sometimes completely silent - aphonia.
When examining the larynx, its mucous membrane appears to be reddened, swollen, the false vocal cords are thickened, the true cords do not completely close when trying to pronounce sounds (hence hoarseness and aphonia). Acute laryngitis does not last long and, with proper treatment, resolves within 7-10 days.
The main thing in treatment is complete rest of the larynx. The patient should not speak for 5-7 days, it is necessary to exclude irritating substances from food (pepper, mustard, vinegar), as well as everything excessively cold and hot; smoking should be prohibited. From medical procedures - warm drink, heat on the neck (bandage, compress), steam inhalation. Medications - as prescribed by the doctor.
false croup . In acute laryngitis, there is often swelling of the mucous membrane of the larynx under the true vocal cords (subglottic laryngitis).
In children, especially younger ones (2-7 years), there is a form of subglottic laryngitis, characterized by significant swelling of the mucous membrane and called false croup (as opposed to true croup, or diphtheria of the larynx, to which this form of laryngitis is somewhat similar in its symptoms) .
The swollen mucous membrane protrudes into the lumen of the larynx and narrows the respiratory gap. The child has a dry "barking" cough, and often shortness of breath in the form of asthma attacks. These attacks come on suddenly and for the most part at night, therefore, children with signs of false croup should be under the constant supervision of medical personnel. Attacks last 1-2 hours, then breathing is restored, and the child immediately feels relief; in rare cases difficulty breathing reaches such a sharp degree that it requires urgent action.
List of used literature:
Neiman L.V., Bogomilsky M.R. Anatomy, physiology and pathology of the organs of hearing and speech: Proc. for stud. higher ped. textbook institutions / Ed. IN AND. Seliverstov. - M.: VLADOS, 2001. - 224 p. (Correctional Pedagogy)
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Now let's turn to the structure of the peripheral speech apparatus (executive).
The composition of the peripheral speech apparatus includes: organs of the oral cavity, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, chest and diaphragm. The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing).
Breathe-helping machine
The respiratory apparatus is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. Main purpose respiratory apparatus is the implementation of gas exchange, i.e., the delivery of oxygen to the body and the removal of carbon dioxide, and it also performs both voice-forming and articulatory functions.
The movement of the chest wall during inhalation is carried out due to the action of the so-called inspiratory muscles. Some of them expand the chest, mainly to the sides and forward (external intercostal muscles and rib lifters), others downward (diaphragm), others upward (muscles attached at one end to the upper ribs and collarbones, and at the other to the base of the skull ).
Diaphragm - a flat muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, has a domed shape; when you inhale, it goes down and becomes flatter, which allows the lungs to expand, and when you exhale, it rises again (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2.
The position of the chest, anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm:
- ****** during a quiet exhalation; --- during inhalation with costal breathing;
- ------- during inspiration during diaphragmatic breathing; ...... during inhalation and during clavicular breathing.
In addition to the main respiratory muscles, there are also auxiliary ones (for example, the muscles of the shoulder girdle and neck). The participation of auxiliary muscles in the act of breathing usually indicates that the main muscles cannot provide the necessary air supply (during running, heavy physical exertion).
The processes of vital and speech breathing are significantly different from each other.
The process of vital breathing proceeds rhythmically, in the same sequence: inhalation-exhalation - stop, inhalation-exhalation - stop. Inhalation is the most active part of the whole process. Immediately after it, relaxation of the respiratory muscles occurs, their return to a state of rest, in which they remain until a new breath. In an adult healthy person, 16-18 complete respiratory movements occur per minute. The time spent on inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same (4:5); inhalation occurs through the nose, exhalation - through the mouth. The amount of air exhaled at a time is approximately 500 cm3, but the lungs are never completely freed from air, there is always the so-called residual air. The rhythmic change of breathing phases occurs involuntarily, reflexively, outside our consciousness.
Features of speech breathing are related to the fact that speech breathing is included in the process of speech, serves it, is the basis of voice formation, the formation of speech sounds, and speech melody.
Breathing in speech is associated with its diverse flow and alternation of speech links: syllables, their groups and syntagmas, which, depending on the content, can be long and short. Thus, the moments of inhalation (speech pause), the amount of air taken in, the intensity of its expenditure cannot follow one another in a uniform rhythmic sequence.
In speech breathing, exhalation is the most important and active link in the whole process, it is much longer than inhalation - 1:20 or even 1:30; the sequence of phases changes as follows: inhalation - stop - exhalation. Inhalation will occur mainly through the mouth (the path of inhaled air through the mouth is shorter and wider than through the nose, so it is faster and less noticeable). In addition, when inhaling through the mouth, the veil of the palate remains raised, which corresponds to its position during the pronunciation of most speech sounds.
The whole breathing process becomes more voluntary. During the stop, air is held in the chest, and then a gradual controlled exhalation occurs. Not only the duration of the exhalation is important, but also its smoothness and lightness. In order for this or that movement to be smooth, elastic, it is necessary that both agonists (in this case, inhalers, which remain tense at the end of inspiration) and antagonists, i.e., muscles acting in the opposite direction, take part in this movement (in this case, exhalers). The described phenomenon is called the support of breathing.
The duration of speech exhalation is arbitrarily regulated and depends on the content and complexity of the speech expression that the speaker is going to implement. But the arbitrariness of speech exhalation is determined by the age of the speaker: young children cannot exercise this control, so their speech is divided into short segments. Children preschool age do not fully regulate the duration of speech exhalation, therefore, the complication of their speech, increased demands on the part of adults can lead to impaired speech breathing.
The child first uses the skills of vital breathing in speech, and only in the process speech development under the influence of the speech of those around him, speech breathing is developed. In cases of early speech pathology, breathing often remains at the level of life. The respiratory section includes the chest with lungs, bronchi and trachea.
Speaking is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase. In the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to one more, the main one - gas exchange). Breathing at the time of speech is significantly different from normal when a person is silent. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation (while outside of speech, the duration of inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same). In addition, at the moment of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (without speech) breathing.
It is clear that for a longer exhalation, a larger supply of air is also needed. Therefore, at the time of speech, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases significantly (approximately 3 times). Inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Another feature of speech breathing is that exhalation at the moment of speech is carried out with the active participation of the expiratory muscles (abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles). This ensures its greatest duration and depth and, in addition, increases the pressure of the air jet, without which sonorous speech is impossible.
The vocal department consists of the larynx (Fig. 3). The larynx borders the pharynx at the top, and the trachea at the bottom and is a cone-shaped tube consisting of several cartilages. The entire anterior and most of the posterior surface of the larynx is formed by the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. They are interconnected by ligaments and muscles. The larynx is attached by means of various muscles from above to the pharynx and hyoid bone and from below to the sternum. The hyoid bone, in turn, is attached by muscles below to the larynx and to the sternum, and above to the lower jaw and temporal bone of the skull. Thus, movements of the larynx, pharynx, mandible, and tongue can influence the position of each of these organs.
The opening leading to the larynx from the pharyngeal cavity is called the entrance to the larynx. It is formed in front by the epiglottis, behind by arytenoid cartilages, and from the sides by arytenoid-epiglottic folds (muscles).
Rice. 3.
1 - epiglottis; 2 - skull-epiglottic fold; 3 - thyroid cartilage; 4 - false vocal cord; 5 - blinking ventricle; 6 - true vocal cord; 7 - cricoid cartilage; 8 - trachea.
The epiglottis is made up of cartilaginous tissue in the form of a leaf. Its front surface is facing the tongue, and the back - to the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending backwards and downwards during swallowing, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.
Inside the larynx, at some distance from the entrance to it, is the glottis, formed by the vocal cords. The vocal cords are at the level of the base of the arytenoid cartilages. They are formed by a thick shield-arytenoid muscle, diverging on both sides of the lumen of the larynx (in the horizontal direction). With their mass, the vocal cords almost completely cover the lumen of the larynx, leaving a relatively narrow glottis (Fig. 4a). When inhaling, the glottis expands and takes the form of a triangle (Fig. 4b), facing forward with its apex and backward with its base. When exhaling, the gap narrows.
Outward from the vocal cords, slightly above them, in the same direction are the so-called false vocal cords, which are two folds of the mucous membrane covering the submucosal tissue and a small muscle bundle. Normally, the false vocal cords take some part in closing and opening the glottis, but they move sluggishly and do not approach each other.
Rice. four.
a - during sounding: 1 - epiglottis; 2 - vocal cords are close; 3 - the glottis is closed; b - with calm breathing: 1 - epiglottis; 2 - vocal cords diverge at an angle; 3 - the glottis is open for free air flow.
The vocal cords have a special muscular structure, different from the structure of other muscles. Due to the special structure of the muscles, the vocal cords can vibrate both with their entire mass, and with one part, for example, half, third, edges, etc. While part of the vocal muscle vibrates, the rest of the muscle mass can be in a state of complete rest . Those muscle fibers of the vocal cords that go in an oblique direction compress a certain section of the vocal muscle and make only one or another segment of it vibrate (they play the role of silencers). The activity of all these internal laryngeal muscles provides the origin of sound.
External laryngeal muscles surround the larynx and hold it at a certain level, which is extremely necessary, since the air exhaled from the lungs with one force or another tends to raise the larynx upwards, and without fixing the larynx in a low position, voice formation becomes impossible. Fixation of the larynx is possible due to the tension of the oppositely acting muscles that attach it to the hyoid and sternum bones. Its low position depends on the position of the lower jaw, tongue and the degree of tension of the muscles of the pharynx and pharynx: a) with an insufficiently lowered lower jaw, the hyoid bone, and with it the larynx, rise upwards; b) hunched over and moved away from the front teeth, the tongue also pulls the hyoid bone and larynx upward due to the muscle connecting the tongue to the hyoid bone; c) raising the larynx is also facilitated by excessive tension of the palatopharyngeal muscle.
In children before the onset of puberty (i.e., puberty), there are no differences in the size and structure of the larynx between boys and girls.
In general, in children, the larynx is small and grows in different periods unevenly. Its noticeable growth occurs at the age of 5-7 years, and then - during the puberty: in girls at 12-13 years old, in boys at 13-15 years old. At this time, the size of the larynx increases in girls by one third, and in boys by two thirds, the vocal folds lengthen; in boys, the Adam's apple begins to appear.
In young children, the shape of the larynx is funnel-shaped. As the child grows, the shape of the larynx gradually approaches the cylindrical.
The mechanism of voice formation is implemented as follows. During phonation, the vocal folds are in a closed state (Fig. 5). The jet of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original, i.e. median, position, so that, as a result of the continuing pressure of the exhaled air stream, they again move apart, etc. Closing and opening continue until the pressure of the voice-forming expiratory jet stops. Thus, during phonation, vocal folds vibrate. These vibrations are made in the transverse, and not in the longitudinal direction, i.e., the vocal folds move inward and outward, and not up and down.
Rice. 5.
A - when breathing; B - during phonation; B - when whispering
When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back between them there is a gap in the form of a small equilateral triangle, through which the exhaled stream of air passes. The vocal folds do not vibrate at the same time, but the friction of the air stream against the edges of a small triangular slit causes noise, which is perceived by us in the form of a whisper.
The voice has power, height and timbre. The strength of the voice depends mainly on the amplitude (range) of the oscillations of the vocal folds, which is determined by the amount of air pressure, i.e., the force of exhalation. The resonator cavities of the extension tube (pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity), which are sound amplifiers, also have a significant effect on the strength of the voice.
The size and shape of the resonator cavities, as well as the structural features of the larynx, affect the individual "color" of the voice, or timbre. It is thanks to the timbre that we distinguish people by voice.
The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, which in turn depends on their length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker and less tense they are, the lower the sound of the voice.
If you ask a musician playing the guitar, violin, piano or bassoon, flute, trumpet how sounds are extracted from the instrument, what determines their strength, duration, then he will tell you about the features of his instrument and what needs to be done to make sounds were of different tonality, strength, length.
But if the same musician is asked how, when he speaks, he turns an air stream into a sound wave and where, with the help of what this wave turns into speech sounds, then one can hardly expect an intelligible answer. Yes, musicians! Not every professional lecturer, teacher, lawyer, diplomat, politician, for whom a sounding speech is a professional necessity, will give the correct answer. While for for all those who, by their profession, “work” with their voice, the speech apparatus is a kind of musical instrument created by nature and therefore perfect, which must be known in all its subtleties in order to successfully use it.
Where and how are speech sounds formed? What determines their strength, timbre, breadth? How can you convey thoughts, feelings, the state of a person's soul with the help of voice, influence others? What processes take place and what laws of acoustics, physiology, psychology underlie them?
Scientists have determined that the sound of a voice is a form of energy. This energy, generated by the human vocal apparatus, propagating at a high speed, causes air molecules to vibrate with a certain frequency and force. The pitch of the sound depends on the frequency of the vibration, and its strength depends on the amplitude of the vibration. Therefore, in order to understand the nature of sound, its acoustic and physiological features, it is necessary first of all to study the speech apparatus, to know its structure and be able to “play” on it. Indeed, the success of the performance depends largely on the voice.
I. Andronikov, publicist, memoirist, critic, has a story "Chaliapin's Throat". The author retells what he heard from the famous artist of the Maly Theater Ostuzhev, who once happened to look into Chaliapin's throat:
You don't know what - I - saw!!! Hands out like
offering to wind woolen threads around them, he rounded
et palms, joined the tips of his fingers - hands met;
looked around the space formed inside, gave me a cash
afraid, looking into my eyes, shouted loudly, abruptly:CRATER!!!
A complete and tense pause - and again a furious exclamation:
A round arch is formed from the palms:
DOME!!! It goes under the very eyes ... And under this
the unique timbre of Chaliapin's bass is born like a dome!..
The tongue, like a wave on a sultry afternoon, barely ripples behind the necklace
we pour the lower teeth ... AND IN THE WHOLE LARYNCH, NOT ONE
EXTRA DETAILS! .. It is considered as a structure
great master! And I can't take my eyes off this unusual
new spectacle!...The narrator draws attention to the size of the pharynx, its depth (a crater!), the height of the palate (a dome!), the tongue (like a wave on a hot afternoon). These are all the components of the speech apparatus, and for each person it has its own dimensions, its own configuration.
What does it depend on? From nature? What nature has awarded, then you have? One of Ostuzhev's friends, when he told him about what he saw, remarked:
I know Chaliapin's throat. I agree with you - it's amazing! But not nature! This is a miracle of work, systematic training. Chaliapin by nature has a magnificent bass - the rarest ligaments! And an ordinary throat. But his first singing teacher, Usatov, special exercises managed to raise his soft palate, expanded the walls of the larynx, he taught Chaliapin - well, how can I explain it to you - to gargle with sounds ... .
Here, it turns out that! Each person, performing the necessary exercises, can bring his speech apparatus to perfection or significantly develop and improve it.
Look closely at the diagram:
the spirit is drawn into the lungs and pushed out. The volume of the lungs, how much air they can hold and then push out, depends on the strength of the sound and its duration.
When Tamagno performed on the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre, the artist Ostuzhev once told Irakli Andronikov, Moscow students, who always knew everything better than anyone, never bought tickets to the gallery. They listened to him for free - from Petrovka. This young man had such a voice that he had to lace up a special corset on his naked body before the performance so as not to take a deep breath. As you know, you never hear an orchestra or a choir outside... but Tamagno's voice came through the dormer windows in the attic. If it had not been laced up, then, perhaps, the walls would have cracked, and some theater, smaller than our Bolshoi, would have buzzed into tartarara.
Of course, you can believe it or not, but the fact remains: the strength of sound depends on the depth and strength of inhalation and exhalation.
However, when inhaling and exhaling air, sound is not always produced. To live, a person must breathe, even in sleep. With the cessation of breathing comes death.
When and how does air turn into sound or contribute to the formation of sound? And not just a sound, but a sound of speech.
The most active articulator is the tongue. He feels like a master in his mouth: he will press against his teeth, then he will retreat from them, then he will begin to rise to the palate, then he will go deep into the oral cavity. The nature of most sounds of the Russian language depends on its movements. Not by chance verbal(verbal, sound) way of communication was called language.
O The leading role of the tongue in the formation of sounds is evidenced by the expressions: “Have you lost your tongue?”, “Have you got your tongue stuck to the larynx?”, “Did you swallow your tongue?” or “What, are you without a language?”, “Have you lost your language?” So they say when the one to whom they are addressing is silent, does not answer.
And how many stable expressions, the figurativeness of which is created due to the direct meaning of the word language (“organ of speech”)! "Keep your mouth shut" (Be quiet, don't talk too much). "What is his long tongue, does not know how to restrain himself in conversation. If someone is said to have boneless tongue, it means that he loves to talk, chatting a lot of all sorts of nonsense, nonsense. “So it asks for the tongue, the tongue itches,” they say when they really want to say, when they can’t resist, to endure, so as not to speak, not to say something. But if a person cannot articulate, clearly express his thought, then they say: "His tongue is tangled."
Now you can imagine what a complex, perfect and necessary apparatus nature has given to man.
By the nature of the speech sound, by the physical style of speech, we judge the speaker's temperament, his character, attitude, his mood, and finally, his sincerity. Cheerfulness and lethargy, energy and inertia, determination and timidity, interest and indifference - all these mental moments that accompany oral speech, as if accompanying its content, are correctly reflected in the sound stream. AT colloquial speech this reflection is direct, involuntary, not controlled by the consciousness of the speaker. In public speech, it should become a conscious and deliberate instrument of influence.
An actor, reciter, orator, teacher, lecturer - anyone who wants to influence sounding speech - must, through systematic observations, realize the expressive significance of individual factors of speech sounding and integral phonetic styles, must learn to deliberately evoke a certain emotional and volitional reaction by sounding his speech.
Of course, an optimist and a delighted person will have a joyful, happy, sonorous voice, while a pessimist will have a "dissatisfied, gloomy, irritated, deaf; an angry person most often speaks in a raised voice, and a sick person - in a weak, painful, interrupted voice. So, in the concept" the nature of speech sounding” includes the tone of speech, tempo, duration and frequency of pauses, diction.
The dependence of the voice on the character and condition of a person is evidenced by many definitions for the word voice, for example: resolute, bold, timid, lethargic, indifferent, sickly, ingratiating, enthusiastic, cheerful, cheerful, serious, laughing, interested, inert, indecisive, compliant, rude, impudent, boorish, polite, intelligent, benevolent, commanding, humble, domineering, brave, calm, agitated, anxious, bossy, truthful, deceitful, treacherous, sincere, irritable, cheerful, dejected, grumbling, boring, frivolous, energetic.
That's how many different shades a voice can have, conveying the state of the speaker, his character, attitude towards the interlocutor, the subject of speech, the degree of education and upbringing.
CONTROL QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is the speech apparatus?
The speech apparatus consists of two closely related parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive) (Fig. 1).
The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nodes, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata), and nerves leading to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.
What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?
Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of paramount importance in the formation of speech. This is the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the predominantly left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyrus (lower) is a motor area and is involved in the formation of one's own oral speech (Broc's center). The temporal gyrus (upper) is the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perception of someone else's speech is carried out. For understanding speech, the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important. The occipital lobe is the visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing). In addition, the child begins to develop speech due to his visual perception of the articulation of adults.
The subcortical nuclei are in charge of the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.
Conducting paths. The cerebral cortex is connected with the organs of speech (peripheral) by two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.
Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex at Broca's center.
From the periphery to the center, that is, from the region of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, there are centripetal paths.
centripetal path It starts in proprioreceptors and baroreceptors.
Proprioreceptors are located inside the muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs.
Rice. 1. The structure of the speech apparatus: 1 - brain: 2 - nasal cavity: 3 - hard palate; 4 - oral cavity; 5 - lips; 6 - incisors; 7 - tip of the tongue; 8 - back of the tongue; 9 - the root of the tongue; 10 - epiglottis: 11 - pharynx; 12 -- larynx; 13 - trachea; 14 - right bronchus; 15 - right lung: 16 - diaphragm; 17 - esophagus; 18 - spine; 19 - spinal cord; 20 - soft palate