Collective discussion of the problem. Effective brainstorming process

July 1961

Our Revolution is developing so rapidly and the approach to emerging problems must be changing so rapidly that it outstrips the ability to understand them in a certain environment of revolutionary organizations.

Therefore, in this report, which is subject to extensive discussion, we want to give general directions for the policy that should be pursued by the leaders of state enterprises in relations with such workers' and political associations as technical council committees, trade unions, HUSEI 1 , revolutionary organizations, etc.

The Cuban revolution, having quickly passed the first democratic anti-imperialist stage, developed into a socialist one, therefore all the problems that it posed must be studied from the point of view of a state that is moving towards socialism, and in the light of the defining guiding principles of Marxism, taking into account the experience of countries that are already really building socialism.

In doing so, the basic conditions of our own national development and adapt them to the overall picture of development at each given stage.

Our Revolution has already passed the phase of struggle in which the usually severe measures of expropriation of the capitalists had to be applied, especially in industry, where more than 80% of the enterprises were nationalized, and this process continues through the purchase of what was expropriated from those who flee the country, leave the enterprises or is convicted of complicity with counter-revolutionary elements. All this led to the need to create a state production apparatus, while ignoring the practical significance of private production. The plan provides for the productive capacity and supply needs of state-owned enterprises and, in general, the small group of private entrepreneurs that continues to exist.

Over time, the concept of the enterprise has changed. The Central Planning Board has given the following definition of an enterprise, which literally reads:

"The concept of a social enterprise includes all production associations that produce the same or similar products or provide the same or similar services, although this does not exclude the possibility that in some cases, for practical reasons, public enterprises can be built on other principles of integration."

The decision of the Central Planning Board states:

"Provide in principle public enterprises the following powers:

a) conclude contracts for the purchase or receipt of materials (electricity, raw materials, lubricants, spare parts for existing machines);

b) conclude contracts for the sale or transfer of created products;

c) conclude contracts for the construction of buildings and the purchase of machinery and equipment necessary to increase the production capacity of the association of units, in accordance with the approved investment plan;

d) conclude collective labor contracts and agreements;

e) appoint, move and dismiss the non-management staff of the organizations included in the association, coordinating these issues with the Ministry of Labor and being guided by the approved staffing;

e) determine which production units should have accounting;

g) develop a budget, on the basis of which enterprises, through state appropriations, will receive the necessary funds to secure the contracts referred to in paragraphs a), b), d), and also transfer profits from the sale of products to the national income.

As can be seen, a state enterprise is an association of more or less similar production units that work with a set budget and according to this budget, determine their production tasks, sign contracts to fulfill them, enter into collective labor agreements and agreements, appoint, move and dismiss non-management of the organizations included in the association, in agreement with the Ministry of Labor and conclude contracts for the construction of facilities, the purchase of machines, etc.

The administrators of each plant are given some of the functions of the director of the combined enterprise, but in relation to the heads of departments, we may not separate the heads of the combined enterprise from the head of the plants. In reality, the combined enterprise is a quantitative association of a number of plants, but with approximately the same functions. What are the leading cadres of today's enterprises of the Ministry of Industry according to the latest approved regulations? Head of the Economic Department, Head of the Production Department and Head of the Sales and Purchasing Department. The three most important people who, together with the director, make up the executive part of the enterprise. But the united enterprise, like the factories - I repeat this again - are not represented only by this leading group of civil servants; there are two other very important organizations which are the trade union and the technical council. The relationship between each of them must be clearly defined.

Before proceeding further, it should be clarified that factories are the property of all the people, and since the people in our country are represented by the state. so they are the property of the state. The Cuban people entrusted the state with the mission of directing production in order to achieve the goals of the socialist revolution. And it is the socialist character of the Cuban Revolution that determines the general directions of production; rejecting the anarchy of capitalist production, the revolution puts forward a plan for rational socialist production. Therefore, the plan is one of the pillars of the socialist system, in which the efforts of the entire country are coordinated, harmoniously distributed and closely linked to each other.

Of course, the government cannot dictate norms, draw up plans, set tasks without the participation of the people, since in this case the plan would be ineffective, bureaucratic. Therefore, the enterprise must appeal to its employees and workers in order to involve them in the discussion of plans, to involve the people in production and in solving production issues in such a way that the final result would be vital, the result of practical discussions of certain topics that could lead to final conclusions. It should be added that, according to the principles in force in the management of enterprises in the socialist countries, the administrator and the administrative council bear full responsibility for the obligations assigned to them. This must be clear, for no negligence can be tolerated on the part of the administrator in the performance of the functions conferred on him by the state, the functions conferred upon him as director of an enterprise or administrator of a factory. Only on the basis of this basic criterion, it is possible to start a discussion of the proposed problem.

What should be the relationship between the administrator and trade unions?

The title of this work already contains the idea that leadership should be unified, with personal responsibility and collective discussion. Directors, we have already talked about this, must comply, enforce general guidelines ministries; in addition, they must also manage all stages of direct planning, manage the organization and compilation, implementation and control of all functions and affairs of the combined enterprise or in this case the plant. The director of the combined entity must:

a) direct himself or through competent employees the work of departments, offices and production units of the joint enterprise, being the main person responsible to the ministry for the good progress of work;

b) supervise the preparation and implementation of the state plan in the part relating to the joint enterprise (technical and economic plan of the joint enterprise);

c) monitor the achievement of established performance indicators, wages, contracts, technology, finance, laws and regulations, safety and health measures for workers. Monitor also the correct and efficient use of resources allocated to the joint venture by the state;

d) take the necessary decisions of an internal nature aimed at improving the work of the combined enterprise. Issue the necessary instructions for the best organization of the administrative, economic, technical, production and commercial activities of the combined enterprise;

e) inform, stimulate, train and improve the capabilities of the personnel of the combined enterprise in order to achieve a more revolutionary, efficient and economical activity;

e) sign Required documents public and private nature, however, they should in no way go beyond the limits established in the technical and economic plan of the combined enterprise;

g) preside over administrative councils, committees and meetings that are held for information and coordination of various activities of the combined enterprise;

h) cooperate with revolutionary and trade union organizations;

i) support the active participation of workers in the management and implementation of the plan.

What will be the role of trade unions?

The trade unions have two distinct functions which complement each other in a revolutionary era.

One of them is to understand the basic idea of ​​the organization and tasks of the government, discuss it at the level of a particular enterprise or plant, and bring this idea to the consciousness of the working masses so that what needs to be done takes root in their minds, and so that this consciousness continues with even greater force. moved things forward.

Another task, seemingly opposite to the first, is to protect the specific and immediate interests of the working class at the level of the association or factory. The establishment of a socialist system does not eliminate contradictions, but only changes the form of their resolution. Now there will also be contradictions, in their resolution the trade union will play an important role, substantiating the point of view of the workers of a certain industry in order to possibly meet their needs, without prejudice to the common interests of the entire working class - building socialism and industrializing the country in short term- when their needs do not diverge from certain labor standards, when they are not opposed to some benefits gained as a result of the trade union struggle over the years, when the urgent needs of the workers of the enterprise are not ignored and when it comes to the general discussion of the collective employment contract. How to reconcile all this defense of the immediate interests of the working class with its participation in the great economic undertakings of the Government? Very simply, since there are no internal contradictions between these two tasks; The government is trying to lead the country forward, as quickly as possible, using as many resources as possible for the benefit of the most more people in the shortest time. This striving is great, sometimes this general striving in a factory runs into practical difficulties; in this case, the task of the trade union is to bring the real conditions of the place of work into line with the important general guidelines for the development of the state. Let's take an example to clarify this idea.

Suppose that in one industrial enterprise (we will not name it) there is a workshop that is harmful to health; the country needs products, for which one has to work in a hurry, in conditions that are very unhealthy. Economic instances, through their organizations, transmit the request to the director of the specified enterprise; the director wants to double the production figures, asks for an increase in the number of working hours and other sacrifices necessary to increase production without new investments, which at this moment cannot be made. The union can come forward and say, “Wait, this group of workers is being asked for a disproportionate effort here, because working so many hours causes such and such illness, leads to physical wear and tear, because there are no minimum conditions for protecting health, because there is one or the other. On behalf of the workers we represent, we demand that wages be improved, sanitary conditions and social insurance be improved; all this is necessary to fulfill the tasks of the government, and if our requests are satisfied, we undertake to do this.

Naturally, we took edge cases; the administration always takes into account the conditions necessary for the performance of their tasks by the workers, has in mind the well-being of the workers and will not demand from them what is caricatured in our example, but here, in general terms, another task of the trade union appears.

The trade union must fulfill this dual function of observing the working conditions of the workers and employees, but at the same time it must give revolutionary direction to the self-sacrifice or necessary efforts of the masses with all the honesty that the proletarians are capable of, since the general directions of the economic policy of the socialist revolution are determined by the desire to create more values ​​to improve the well-being of the working class, peasants and the whole people.

The trade union should know well what these directions are and how to educate the masses in order to achieve the planned indicators as soon as possible; to do this, he must have access to the management of the enterprise. Before drawing up the work schedule of the enterprise, it is desirable that the administration invite the secretary of the trade union to the board of directors. This personal contact will make it possible to better assess the degree of consciousness of the workers and see the economic tasks more clearly.

Trade unions are closely linked to increasing labor productivity and labor discipline, which are fundamental factors in building socialism. The trade unions also take part in training active administrators from among the workers, raising their technical and political level.

Another task of the trade unions is to take care of the immediate material and spiritual needs of the workers. Coordinating all these requests through discussion and persuasion (this is the main method of correct action), the trade union will fulfill all its obligations during this period of tension of all productive forces.

Thus, the relationship between the director and the trade union is cordial, harmonious and has the character of interaction, but they manifest themselves in different areas; everything that concerns the administrative is the responsibility of the administrator, who must exercise his authority; in the field of education and raising the ideological level of the masses, the trade unions have a great responsibility and must carry out this task with a deep revolutionary feeling, subordinating their activities to the goals of society.

Any contradiction must be resolved through discussion, because the strongest weapon of the working class is the strike, it is a forced weapon in resolving class contradictions, a phenomenon that should not take place in a society that has chosen the path of building socialism; workers' strikes in our factories will mean a resounding failure of our administration, and will also be an expression, unfortunately, of the insufficiency of the political consciousness of the working class. Fortunately, these negative phenomena have been eliminated in our country; the consciousness of the workers has risen considerably, and the direction of our economic policy is correct and has the main task of satisfying the interests of the working class as a whole and of each individual.

A vivid expression of our present state, which is completely different from the past, is precisely the voluntary labor of the workers, labor headed and directed by the trade unions. The idea is already firmly rooted in the minds of the workers that it is impossible to separate the factory from the workers, that they are one thing, and that when a worker does something for the factory, he does it for his own good and for the good of the whole people. Thus, voluntary labor unites workers who move from one type of work to another, based on the needs of the country; as necessary, it allows the rotation of workers in various factories or enterprises, as was the case with the production of sugar, when the workers of all enterprises contributed to this work and thereby contributed to the consolidation of the efforts of the working class, the implementation of the most important slogans of the country.

TECHNICAL ADVICE

At the factory level, as well as in associations, there is a body, more or less technical, called the Technical Council. The technical council is composed of the most prominent workers from each division of production, who, united, advise the administrator on the practical measures to be taken in each division of production.

Technical councils are engaged in solving revolutionary technical problems. For example, some kind of spare part is needed, the car is standing due to its absence, the engineer believes that this part should be delivered from abroad, it takes a month and a half, that this part cannot be repaired and therefore the car needs to be stopped. “In any case,” the engineer will say, “this part must be delivered by plane.”

The Technical Council meets, draws on the practical experience of all the workers, and decides that this part can be repaired in Cuba until a new one arrives. A task is set, and the part is repaired. What was the nature of these people's work? It was technical, but it was also revolutionary. This is the main function of the Technical Council, but from the height of its position at the plant, it can know very well how production relations are developing, can see the importance of labor discipline, the importance of labor organization, how incorrect, erroneous actions are understood in various workshops of the plant. or other specific area.

So, the Technical Council is an experimental laboratory in which the working class is preparing itself for the future tasks of the overall government of the country. It should promote the development of all capable workers, the desire for creative growth and, together with the trade unions, invite them to study in the various schools that are being created; should constantly work to raise the technical level of the workers, since trade unions and revolutionary organizations are obliged to raise their cultural and ideological level, contributing to further development socialist consciousness.

The administrator is the chairman of the Technical Council. His decision at the level of the enterprise or plant is final, but can be referred to the highest organization for consideration. That is, in the case of a plant, the Technical Council can (and should) inform the director of the joint enterprise that such and such a plant administrator is doing such and such actions that are contrary to the policy of the ministry and harm production, workers and the general course of affairs at the plant; if the director of the association does not pay attention to this statement, it can be sent above, to the appropriate deputy minister. As you can see, there is a strong guarantee that all statements from the Technical Council will be considered by those responsible for production problems.

As a result, the Technical Council aims to replace highly qualified technicians and improve working conditions through its revolutionary enthusiasm. In particular, he will work to explore the possibility of manufacturing spare parts, to rationalize the production process, to increase labor productivity, and will cooperate with trade unions to improve labor discipline and increase the technical literacy of workers. In addition, now his urgent task is, together with the responsible persons of the Ministry of Labor and relevant ministries, to develop labor standards. These standards are the basis for calculating wages in the socialist system, and on their basis a collective agreement is drawn up.

There is one very important "factor" in production, which, ideologically, has remained far behind the political development of the country - this is a technician. Technicians in Cuba were generally petty-bourgeois or upper-class people whose fathers had the money to train them here or abroad, usually in the United States; in addition, they were brought up in a spirit of respect and admiration for American technology. After completing his studies, such a technician most likely took a course at some American enterprise and often went to work for another American enterprise. Thus, his ideological horizon was limited to practical knowledge of the essence of the matter. He had no contact with the other world, and for him everything that is not “free initiative” and does not give him the opportunity to get rich someday is disgusting. And although he is exploited today, although his senior comrade, some engineer who is already 60 years old, continues to vegetate in the role of a modest employee, as before, despite all this, he cherishes hope and therefore does not feel sympathy for the socialization of enterprises. He was accustomed to working several hours a day, accustomed to being respected, and perhaps afraid of the workers. He saw how the whole surrounding world, very stable, which he had seen unshakable throughout his existence, where he lived in relative comfort, but with unrealistic opportunities to make a big leap to his happiness, suddenly collapsed.

In addition, the workers of the plant generally see in the technicians an ally of the owner, an unmerciful person who makes them work harder, makes them do this or that job, qualifies the workers; with or without reason, the workers transfer their hatred of the old masters and the engineers. The engineer feels this persecution and begins to look for something that could orient him in this situation, help him overcome the crisis; Here, in this situation, the role of the administrator is important. The administrator is precisely the person who must help technicians, raise their ideological level, show them by example in constant conversations with them what socialism can do, clearly state to them the truth that under socialism the technician has more opportunities for his development. than under capitalism; that although one, two or five examples can show technicians who have become rich under capitalism, but for this to happen, hundreds and thousands of technicians had to be humiliated and exploited. We must show him confidence, bring him closer to the revolutionary process. The technician is not stained by original sin, and the norms of his behavior are simply determined by the upbringing he received, the social class he came from, the environment in which he spent his whole life. The revolutionary administrator must work so that his technicians remain in the country, make an ideological revolution in their minds, which would allow them not only to simply work, but to work with enthusiasm for the Revolution, so that they merge with the working class, the class that in the very near future is called decide the fate of the country.

All this must be done without, however, losing sight of the fact that not the slightest excess of rights on the part of technicians should be allowed; you can allow all their ideological doubts and all attacks against the existing real situation, but you can’t allow them, for example, because of the old way of thinking, they mistreat workers, be absent from work, refuse to repair any machine or work with technicians from socialist countries who came as part of many of the technical teams sent by these countries to help us. The task of the administrator is to convince, but to convince firmly, this is one of the most delicate aspects of his daily work.

All this is a task of the transitional period; persons who have come out of the social classes overthrown in the course of the struggle must be helped for the period of time during which they will no longer feel like strangers in the new society and will enter it.

In the future, new techniques will emerge from the ranks of the working class and the peasantry, their fusion with the Revolution will be complete, and the spirit of socialist competition will become a natural thing.

It is very important today to make every effort to ensure that the working class moves towards mastering technology, just as it is advancing with leaps and bounds along the Path of raising its ideological level. In this way it will be possible to gain control over the apparatus of production, which is the economic basis of the new system, more quickly.

This set of revolutionary organs - the Technical Council, the trade unions and the administration headed by the chief administrator - has a whole range of tasks and general relations. Their tasks have basically already been clarified; as for the relationship between them, it should be strongly and clearly explained, emphasized, so that it can be immediately seen that Responsibility for the implementation of government plans rests with the administrator and consequently falls upon him full responsibility for carrying out the orders of the government.

There should be a broad integration of these bodies, urgent issues should be constantly discussed, permanent contacts should be established that will allow the exchange of views at any time and consultation on all necessary political and technical aspects of this problem so that the administrator, in the last instance and under his full responsibility, makes a decision . This is what will allow a particular plant or enterprise to go the right way.

Along with these bodies, established, one might say, in a set order, there is another one that is of great importance and is a true expression of the aspirations and opinions of the working class - the production conference.

The production conference, held on a democratic basis, includes all the workers of the plant, who freely express their point of view on the course of production and the fulfillment of the plan. The production meeting is, as it were, a chamber of representatives in which their own tasks and the tasks of all employees and workers are discussed.

Criticism and self-criticism should dominate there as a means of socialist education. They allow the exchange of different, sometimes opposing points of view, which makes it possible to educate administrators in the spirit of a critical analysis of their own tasks in front of the entire team of enterprises, and the latter - the possibility of effective control over the implementation of their tasks by the administration.

Criticism and self-criticism are the basis of daily work, but they are most pronounced at the production meeting, where all issues related to production are discussed, and where the work of the administrator will be subjected to examination and criticism by the workers whom he supervises.

It must be emphasized once again that discussions should be conducted not from a position of strength, but from a position of logic and common sense, without consideration of petty and personal interests. The method of "highest orders" is ineffective. It is necessary for the administrator to understand that in the treatment of workers it is necessary to act in such a way that they are satisfied with him. If he does not fulfill their will, he will remain outside the enterprise.

Of the new organs set up by the Revolution, one is the youngest, HUSEI, which was founded in the east by Comrade Raul Castro, and then it was set up everywhere, as far as the province of Matanzas; it is absent only in Havana and the province of Pinar del Río. HUSEI has two important functions, one of which is related to production problems at the central level, and the second is the coordination of communications at the local level. HUSEI currently exercises the functions of local political power. In this capacity, he must know everything that happens in the given locality, the zone in question, and even the province. In this case, the relationship with the central government is secondary.

At the same time, HUSSEI performs the function of a special apparatus for coordinating, monitoring and controlling the state at the local or provincial level, and it is very important that this function be carefully performed. Here, relations must be strictly carried out in accordance with established principles so that friction does not occur, there is no fruitless work of HUSEI and his functions do not increase excessively, thereby causing harm to the cause. It must be taken from the basic premise that the administration of each branch of production is the supreme authority of that particular branch. Conflicts between local enterprises and organizations belonging to different ministries, conflicts of any nature arising at the level of the province or locality, HUSEI should resolve in a spirit of cooperation, calling on the parties to discuss them; HUSEI is not an executive body in the field of the economy and can never, by local directive, distort the national direction outlined by the relevant ministry.

This distinction needs to be established: for example, a conflict between the administrators of a state-owned enterprise owned by the Ministry of Industry and another enterprise owned by the Ministry of Transport that is local in nature can be resolved at the local level. HUSEI, in which both these organizations are represented, can act in a spirit of reconciliation, trying to establish between them a more reasonable, fairer relationship for the benefit of the country. If there is a conflict between the administrator of a factory and some official of the highest hierarchy of the relevant ministry, in this case HUSEI should refrain from interfering. Administrators must first of all remember that they are administratively subordinate to the ministry to which they belong, this is the first, and that relations with HUSEI are secondary in this case. That is, it is unacceptable that an application from workers and an administrator against any employee of a higher authority be submitted to the provincial HUSEI, bypassing the ministry, since in this case this would be a violation of the administrative order.

Just as in the case of the relationship between the trade unions and the Technical Council, the relationship between the factory managers and HUSEI of the provinces serves the cause of unification, which we all aspire to do more efficient work administrator. However, the administrator can never in any way waive his legal rights and basic duties; it should be said that the management of the plant is under his responsibility and for everything that happens in the process of this management, he must answer to the appropriate ministry. Based on these premises, HUSEI, which includes representatives of revolutionary organizations and administrative bodies, performs an important task: it is called upon to coordinate the actions of all these forces, smooth out "roughness" and work for the common good, doing everything to fully use the country's production capabilities at the local level. .

What are the main tasks of an administrator? We can say that during this period the main task is to fulfill and overfulfill the plan. How does the administrator ensure that the plan is met or exceeded? Basically in two ways: by increasing production and increasing labor productivity. Production, i.e., the creation of the necessary products to achieve the intended goals, and productivity, i.e., the acceleration of the production process in such a way as to produce more with less or with the same costs. You can achieve the desired performance through various factors: coordination of administrative and technical forces with the productive forces, i.e., with the workers, so that they deeply assimilate the ideas of the importance of fulfilling the plan and raising their technical level, starting from the lowest.

AT this moment an important role is played by the fact that the political enlightenment of the masses, their desire to do more and better, are put into practice in the course of the competition. Competition is one of the pillars of the accelerated development of the country during the revolutionary period, and its foundations must be thoroughly studied and discussed in all factories so that the overall effort will lead to high Cuban production.

And all this must be done without sacrificing product quality. On the contrary, quality should be an integral part of the evaluation of the efforts made. If today some products have changed their appearance or taste, in the future we will find the appropriate recipe and the necessary raw materials for this. We must always move forward, given the importance of product quality to improve the well-being of the population, and not sacrifice quality for the sake of increasing the quantity of products.

For all this, one of the most important and fruitful tasks must be performed, which must be solved in close cooperation with the directors of enterprises, members of the Technical Council, trade unions, revolutionary organizations, as well as HUSEI: this task is the formation of personnel. The formation of personnel is the basis that will ensure the future success of factories, enterprises and the whole country as a whole. Anyone who today manages to sacrifice some product, a few hours of work, by increasing the productivity of labor in the future will more than gain what he loses today, can say that he has perfectly understood the process of socialist production in an enterprise or in a state institution. This is one of the most important tasks facing us at the moment. We are preparing to create the necessary conditions so that in the coming years we will have a large number of capable technicians. To this end, a detailed plan has been drawn up with the socialist countries, which is already on the way to being implemented.

Although a person cannot be divided into cells with clear boundaries, according to which his merits are considered separately, and then the whole is deduced by simple arithmetic addition, it can be said that the best director of an enterprise or factory can be one who knows how to combine the interests of the development of the working class and the country as a whole and the specific success of his enterprise; coordinates its actions with all revolutionary organizations;

showing decisiveness and authority, takes the solution of emerging problems under his own responsibility; knows how to rise to such administrative heights that make it possible to embrace production as a whole and to reach the masses by direct, personal communication; leads objectively, based on his knowledge, and also captivating others by his example; knows the theory of planning and its problems, production technology at his enterprise; can surpass the average intellectual level and constantly continue to learn, but at the same time feel like a member of the work team and turn to him for experience; able to forget even the smallest personal interest; the fulfillment of laws and revolutionary duty puts personal friendship above; knows how to evaluate people on specific deeds and results of work, and not on their appearance and words; combines strong administrative discipline with revolutionary courage and initiative; promotes the technical and political development of the working class, providing the working people with ample opportunities to learn. The leader must finally grasp that the great scientific truth of the revolutionary movement must be supplemented by constant and purposeful work, always keeping reality in mind and, armed with theory, working for this reality.

Theory and practice, decision and dispute, management and orientation, analysis and synthesis - these are the dialectical oppositions that a revolutionary administrator must master.

"Trabajo" ("Labour")

Brainstorm

Brainstorm is one of the new methods of problem solving, allows you to consider a maximum of ideas in a short time. He allows a creative approach to the problem, a flight of fancy, unexpected ideas and angles, any criticism is not acceptable in it. Brainstorming must be done under certain conditions. It is better to take employees into the group who do not have strictly established stereotypes about the organization (i.e., little experience in the company), it is undesirable to mix strongly different ages, but you can mix men and women and periodically update the composition of the group so that there is no stagnation in ideas.

Note 1

Brainstorming helps solve all types of problems where multiple solutions are possible. Too general and abstract problems he cannot solve, as well as problems with one solution or with a limited number of solutions.

Brainstorming has given birth to problem solving techniques such as:

• brainwriting (when participants express their ideas exclusively in writing, and then exchange sheets of ideas);
• brainstorming on boards (when a board is placed in the room where you can attach sheets with notes of ideas that may spontaneously come to mind during the day);
• brainstorming in Japanese (when ideas are based on a single approach to defining a problem, which narrows the range of possible options);
• multi-stage brainstorming (when 2 groups are created, the first generates ideas, the second evaluates them).

Force field analysis

Force field analysis allows you to present the problem visually, based on an analytical approach to the problem. It can be used in different situations, there are no restrictions on the number of possible solutions (one or many). Each problem is seen as a balance between two systems of forces acting in opposite directions. driving forces seek to change the situation for the better, restraining forces seek to change the situation for the worse. Schematically, the process looks like this:

Picture 1.

When applying the method, all the factors that resist the solution and help to solve the problem are recorded in writing. When all factors are recorded, they are ranked using the following scale:

Figure 2.

Then the forces that can be changed or not are determined, then they determine which forces to focus on. After that, a plan is developed to solve the problem.

Delphi method

Definition 1

The Delphi method is a process in which the participants express themselves through discussion or on paper and come to a consensus.

It helps if participants have many different opinions on an issue. They can use the information of opponents, which helps to rethink the problem and reach an agreement on one of the alternative solutions. The method is especially effective in solving technological problems.

The participants in the discussion write down their ideas for solving the problem on paper, then the sheets are collected, a common list of solutions is compiled. Participants then rate the importance of the decision on a predetermined scale (usually 10 points, where 1 is the most important decision, 10 is the least important). Then sheets with grades are collected, the grades are summarized in a general table. If the majority of participants gave the same score to one of the alternatives, then the problem is considered solved. If there is no agreement, then the evaluation process is continued according to a similar system (the alternatives closest in terms of the number of evaluations are selected and the ranking is carried out again). When the estimates become more homogeneous, several priority options are identified and settled on.

Opinion exchange

Opinion exchange is used when during the discussion the participants are divided into two or more camps and do not want to change positions. The method allows you to better understand the point of view of opponents. Each of the camps prepares a presentation of its position, selects arguments. Then there are presentations where the participants present their points of view. After that, each of the camps prepares a presentation on the opposite point of view as if it were theirs. personal opinion(that is, without negative ratings). After the presentations of the second type, each group criticizes the opponents. Thus, the group itself picks up arguments against its original opinion. After that, the results are summed up and a discussion is held. As a result of the discussion, there is a high probability of finding a consensus, since the participants consider the problem from all possible positions.

Collages and fantasies

Collages and fantasies- is used when a problem or opinion about alternatives is difficult to formulate verbally both in a group and in a dialogue with strangers. The method activates visual perception instead of verbal, it involves the creation of illustrations based on the available information.

The easiest way to create a collage is from printed materials, since drawing takes more time. Various newspapers and magazines (of different genres, not only business ones) are collected. The group then creates two types of collages: one depicts a real situation, the other an ideal picture of the solution to the problem. After creating two collages, the group prepares a verbal presentation of what they depict. The presentations are then analyzed.

This method quite ambiguous due to the strong creative approach to solving the problem. Therefore, it does not always help to find a solution, sometimes it does not justify itself.

coursework

Management, consulting and entrepreneurship

Decision-making processes, understood as the choice of one of several possible alternatives, permeate all human life. We make most of the decisions without thinking, because there is an automaticity of behavior developed by many years of practice. But there are problems of choice, solving which, a person experiences painful reflections.

In group educational and cognitive activity, each student actively participates in solving the problem. At the same time, he interacts with other subjects of activity, communicates with them, shows a rational and emotional attitude, realizing his intellectual potential. In such a situation, the student turns into an active, thinking subject of activity.

According to psychologists, in small groups of 3-7 people, employees receive a greater amount of knowledge; a well-organized and cohesive group is more productive than the same number of people working alone. Participation in group forms of training brings a sense of satisfaction. By hypothesizing, listening and critically evaluating the opinions of others, compromising and collaborating with each other, employees gain experience in decision-making and professional communication, while they develop necessary qualities future specialist.

The introduction of group forms and methods for solving educational and cognitive tasks is also aimed at overcoming the contradiction between the frontal-individual form of organization of the educational process and the collective form of activity of specialists in production. It is known that labor activity in production is predominantly collective in nature, where each specialist is required to implement such qualities as collectivism, tact, mutual understanding, sociability, respect for other people's opinions, etc. AT educational institution In college, the student's cognitive activity is mainly individual in nature. When organizing the frontal educational work of students (lectures, practical and seminar classes), each student individually perceives the material presented by the teacher, individually solves educational problems, and makes “his own” report. Course and diploma projects are carried out purely individually. With frontal-individual learning, the possibilities of the student team and collective (joint) cognitive activity are not used, the educational value of the learning process is reduced, and organized communication between students in the learning process is not implemented.

To eliminate these shortcomings, in the learning process it is necessary to apply various forms and methods of collective work of students in classroom and extracurricular activities: group problem solving, the "brainstorming" method, the "focal objects" method, analysis of specific situations, discussions, business games, batch execution term papers and etc.

Group problem solving

First, the teacher determines the topic and goals of the lesson, reveals the meaning of the issues being studied; by using various methods conducts a repetition of the lecture material, then the academic group is divided into subgroups of 3-7 people. The composition of the subgroup should be heterogeneous (each subgroup includes strong, medium and weak employees). Each subgroup headed by a supervisor (leader) solves a problematic task through joint cognitive activity (subgroups can solve the same task or different tasks of the same class). After a collective discussion and solution of the problem, one of the members of the subgroup reports the result. Other subgroups are invited to discuss it. In case of disagreement between subgroups or individual students, a discussion arises. The results of collective work are summed up by teachers.

Brainstorming method

Brainstorming emerged in the 1930s as a way of collectively generating new ideas. History is rich in examples of how sometimes a rather complex problem, which could not be solved by traditional methods, unexpectedly found an original solution in the conditions of “brainstorming”.

The scope of this method is quite wide - from scientific, technical, economic and managerial problems to social, psychological, pedagogical and even ethical situations.

AT general view The brainstorming process consists of the following steps:

1. Formulation of the problem to be solved; substantiation of the problem to find a solution. Determining the conditions of a specific work, issuing to the participants the rules for finding solutions and behavior in the process of "brainstorming". Formation of a working group and an expert group, whose responsibilities will include the development of criteria, evaluation and selection best ideas.

2. Training session-warm-up. Exercises in quickly finding answers to questions and tasks of the training session. The task of this stage is to help the participants get rid of the impact of psychological barriers (clumsiness, shyness, isolation, stiffness, etc.) as much as possible.

3. "Brainstorming" of the problem. The task is clarified in advance, the rules are reminded
behavior during the decision. Generation of ideas in the working group.

4. Evaluation and selection of the best ideas. Based on the selected criteria, experts select the best ideas.

5. Reporting the results of the "brainstorming". Discussion of the results of the work of groups, evaluation of the best ideas, their justification and public defense. Making a collective decision.

The success of the application of the method largely depends on the leader of the session. He must skillfully direct the course of collective mental activity, successfully pose stimulating questions, carry out prompts, additions, etc. the number of session participants is usually a group of 4 to 15 people. Brainstorming sessions range from 15 minutes to an hour. The effectiveness of the brainstorming session (process) depends on the following rules:

1. "Brainstorming" requires the complete emancipation of thought and freedom of imagination: the more unexpected and unusual the idea, the more reason to expect success.

3. "Brainstorming" does not tolerate stereotyped thinking; complete liberation from the captivity of stereotypes, standards and traditions is the most important condition for the success of a creative search.

4. The more proposals put forward, the more likely a new idea will appear.

5. During the session, addition, improvement and development of ideas proposed by you or other participants in the brainstorming session are allowed.

6. It is allowed to ask questions to colleagues in order to clarify and develop their ideas; the question should not contain an assessment or your attitude to the idea.

7. Carefully, but briefly formulate your thoughts; do not be upset if you are not understood. Try again to state your idea.

8. If the problem as a whole cannot be solved, try to break it down into its constituent elements and think about each of them separately.

9. Use the method of combining techniques, decisions, calculations, estimates: try to construct some system from parts that seem “alien” to each other.

10. Feel free to arbitrarily change the parameters in the problem posed - reduce or increase the cost, time, size, distance, etc. If the idea of ​​a solution is found, it can be refined to the level of the established conditions of the boundary problem.

Analysis of a specific situation (situational method)

A specific situation is understood as events that include a contradiction (conflict) or conflict with environment. As a rule, this is a deviation in social, economic, organizational, managerial, technological and other processes.

Situational analysis is carried out according to the following methodology. Study group is divided into several subgroups. Each of them receives a folder with a description of specific situations. The teacher determines the range of tasks for subgroups. Group work on the situation consists in analyzing it, identifying the problem, finding ways to solve it, discussing solutions. Then these options are submitted for a general discussion. As a result of the discussion and the final conversation, a collective judgment about the situation or a solution to the problem is developed.

Eristics is a set of research techniques, a technique for raising questions and solving them; method of teaching with the help of leading questions; the science of winning arguments.

Eristic methods are based on the principles that determine the strategy and tactics of decision makers in solving poorly defined and uncertain problems. They stimulate creative thinking in the decision-making process, allow generating new ideas, the use of which makes it possible to increase the efficiency of solving managerial problems. Let us briefly outline the eristic methods most commonly used in decision-making practice.

Group work methods

1. The method of "brainstorming". There are situations when it is difficult for the decision maker to find a solution. In this case, you can apply the method of "brainstorming". It allows you to identify and compare individual judgments, a range of ideas for solving a problem, and then make a decision.

There are several varieties of this method: direct "brainstorming", reverse "brainstorming", "competition of ideas", etc. Let's consider the first and second varieties.

1.1. Direct brainstorming a form of work of collective generation of ideas to solve a creative problem. Its purpose is the selection of ideas.

Rules for participants:

• participants sit at the table facing each other;
• disputes, criticism, evaluations of what is said are prohibited;
• performance time for the participant - 1-2 minutes;
• any ideas are expressed, up to crazy ones;
• The number of ideas is more important than their quality.

• ideas should be welcomed;
• it is necessary to believe in the solvability of the problem;
• it is allowed to ask questions that develop the idea;
• should strive to solve the problem raised;
• all participants are equal;
• no need to think about the consequences of what was said;
• the group is not assigned a specific task, but the problem is characterized in general;
• glances, whispering, gestures that distract attention from solving the problem are undesirable.

The leader must:

• guide the discussion, ask stimulating questions;
• prompt, use jokes, remarks that create an informal atmosphere.

Restrictions and conditions:

• number of participants - 4-15;
• a different level of their education and specialization is desirable;
• it is necessary to maintain a balance in the level of activity, temperament;
• working time - from 15 min. up to 1 hour

Ideas are selected by specialists - experts who carry out assessments in two stages: first, the most original and rational ideas are selected, and then the optimal ones, taking into account the task and purpose of its solution.

1.2. Reverse Brainstorming. The technology of this form of collective interaction does not involve the generation of new ideas, but the criticism of existing ones.

Rules for participants:

• each idea is criticized, discussed and evaluated according to the criteria: compliance with the initial requirements, the possibility of its implementation or lack thereof; implementation at cost, applicability in another area;
• criticism is stated concisely, positively. Ideas that require a long time to discuss are considered later;
• Everyone can perform many times, but it is better in a circle;
• performance duration - 15-20 minutes;
• It is desirable to hold the event in the morning, in a calm atmosphere.

The reverse brainstorming can be carried out immediately after the direct one, when, after the collective generation of ideas, counter-ideas are formed. This produces:

• systematization and classification of ideas, as well as their grouping according to features expressing general approaches to solving the problem;
• evaluation of ideas for feasibility and search for obstacles to this;
• assessment of criticisms, selection of ideas and counter-ideas that have withstood criticism.

It is advisable to divide all participants into groups:

• idea generators (when a direct “brainstorming” is carried out);
• analysis of the problem situation and evaluation of ideas;
• generators of counter-ideas.

This method is based on the principles:

• interactions in the process of finding a solution;
• trust in the creative possibilities and abilities of each other;
• the optimal combination of intuitive and logical (the ban on criticism, critical analysis of ideas leads to inhibition of the left hemisphere processes of the brain and stimulation of the right hemisphere).

Advantages of the method:

• the possibility of using all the specialists available in the management apparatus;
• improvement of socio-psychological intra-group processes.

Disadvantages of the method:

• allows you to find an idea in a general form, without guaranteeing its thorough development;
• inapplicable in solving a problem that requires cumbersome calculations;
• requires a well-prepared leader who has the skills to organize thought-technical, psycho-technical processes in a group;
• it is not always possible to overcome the inertia of thinking (a consequence of the law of inertia).

1.3. Key Question Method. It is expedient to use the technology of its implementation to collect additional information in a problem situation or to streamline the information already available when solving a problem. Asked questions serve as a stimulus for the formation of a strategy and tactics for solving a problem, develop intuition, form thinking algorithms, lead a person to the idea of ​​a solution, encourage correct answers.

It is known that even in Ancient Rome politicians were encouraged to gather more complete information about the event to ask themselves a series of questions and answer them: Who? What? What for? Where? How? How? When?

Fundamental requirements for using the method:

• problematic and optimal. By skillfully posed questions, it is necessary to reduce the problematic nature of the problem to an optimal level or reduce the uncertainty of the problem;
• fragmentation of information. Use questions to try to divide the problem into sub-problems;
• goal setting. Each new question should form a strategy, a model for solving the problem.

• should stimulate thought, and not suggest an idea for solving a problem;
• questions should contain minimal information;
• when posing a series of questions, it is necessary to: 1. reduce the problem level of the task; 2. ask questions that are logically linked, interesting in form, prompting the emergence of unexpected views on the problem being solved;
• it is necessary to stimulate both empirical, analytical (axiomatic) and dialectical (creative) thinking;
• The problem should be broken down into sub-problems, stages of solution.

• memorize the most characteristic questions and try to systematize them;
• to put before itself questions: 1. simplifying a problem; 2. allowing to comprehend it from a new unexpected side; 3. stimulating the use of existing knowledge and developed skills; 4. dividing the problem into sub-problems; 5. encouraging self-organization, self-control.

Sequencing. Need to find out:

• what is unknown;
• what is given;
• what is the condition;
• whether it is possible to satisfy the condition;
• whether the condition is sufficient to define the unknown (or not, or excessive, or contradictory);
• make a drawing (drawing);
• enter suitable designations;
• split the condition into parts;
• try to write them down.

Formation of an idea and development of a solution plan:

• how to find the connection between data and unknowns;
• whether any related task is known;
• whether it is possible to use it;
• is it possible to use the method of solving it;
• whether some auxiliary element should be introduced to take advantage of the former task;
• Is it possible to formulate the problem in a different, simpler way;
• is it possible to come up with a more accessible problem, more general, more particular, similar;
• is it possible to solve part of the problem, satisfy part of the condition;
• whether it is possible to extract something useful from the data;
• whether all data and conditions have been used;
• whether all the concepts contained in the problem are taken into account.

Implementation of the plan. As you implement your solution plan, control your steps:

• whether it is clear to you that the plan undertaken is correct;
• can you prove that he is correct.

Control and self-control of the obtained solution. Is it not possible:

• check the result;
• check the progress of the solution;
• get the same result differently;
• check the correctness of the result;
• use the result obtained in some other task;
• solve the problem inverse to this one.

2. Method of free associations. It is noted that at the stage of generating ideas, when using new associations, the effectiveness of creative activity increases due to the emergence of new ideas. In the process of the emergence of associations, extraordinary connections are established between the elements of the problem being solved and the previous experience of the persons involved in collective work. This method and technology of its execution takes into account the peculiarities of the activity of the human brain, which develops new ideas when new associative connections arise. So, if members of the group offer a word, a concept, then it can become the basis for establishing associative links.

For example, for some people, a word heard by chance, someone's image, a picture, a melody give rise to an idea that contributes to solving a problem.

• do not rush to solve the problem (problem), but try to repeatedly reformulate it, look at it from the other side;
• offer a word, a concept, try to “evoke” some kind of image that can become an incentive for the formation of unexpected free associations that contribute to the emergence of an idea for solving a problem;
• at the initial stages of generating ideas based on the formation of associations, criticism is prohibited;
• the change of words, concepts, pictures that form associations must occur quickly.

• express, demonstrate everything that directly or indirectly causes the emergence of associations, ideas;
• capture any ideas that arise from colleagues;
• after generating ideas, systematize and classify them;
• select the best ideas through critical analysis.

3. Inversion method. When looking for an idea, a solution to a problem can often be found by changing the direction of the search to the opposite, contrary to the prevailing traditional views dictated by logic and common sense. Often in situations in which logical methods, thinking procedures are fruitless, the opposite alternative solution is optimal.

A classic example of inversion is the invention of a rocket by K. Tsiolkovsky. He decided that he had invented a cannon, but a flying cannon with thin walls and releasing gases instead of nuclei. The method and technology of its implementation are based on the principle of dualism (duality), the optimal use of opposite (direct and reverse) procedures of creative thinking, a dialectical approach to the analysis of the object of study.

• encourage (stimulate) group members to repeatedly reformulate the problem in order to comprehend;
• along with the direct task to put forward the reverse ones;
• to achieve dialectics of analysis and synthesis of reasoning;
• invite group members to use opposite procedures in the process of solving a problem.

• remember that inversion is a search for ideas in directions opposite to traditional views, beliefs, common sense, formal logic;
• start solving the problem by trying to reformulate it;
• look for a counteridea to every idea;
• when solving problems, try to use opposite procedures, means.

The method and this psychotechnology allow:

• develop the dialectic of thinking;
• find a way out of hopeless situations;
• find original solutions of various levels of difficulty.

The application of this form of work with people requires developed creativity basic knowledge, skills and abilities.

4. Method of synectics. It provides an opportunity to get the most original ideas by "training" participants in the use of analogy, intuition, abstraction, free thinking, the use of unexpected metaphors, game elements in the brainstorming process, which allows a familiar problem in an unusual situation to be solved unexpectedly and in an original way.

Terms and requirements:

• the problem is formulated in a general (figurative) form;
• the discussion should begin not with the problem, but with an analysis of its general features that characterize the current situation;
• it is not recommended to stop at one, even original idea solutions;
• in case of difficulties in solving the problem, one should return to the analysis of the situation in which the problem arose;
• the promotion of ideas and their selection depend on the skill, tact, resourcefulness of the leader, his ability to stimulate the creative thinking of the participants.

Critical selection and evaluation of ideas for solving a problem is best done in stages:

1. analysis of each proposed idea;
2. grouping and classification of ideas;
3. critical analysis of the ideas put forward;
4. selection of original, optimal solutions.

• all recommendations of brainstorming methods, analogy, inversion, free associations, etc. are applied;
• the optimal composition of the group is 3-15 people with different abilities, professional interests and training;
• it is necessary to encourage group members to repeatedly reformulate the problem;
• you should not calm down when you get a good idea;
• use questions like: “So what?”, “How do you imagine it?”, “What's new here?”, “What if you do it the other way around?”

• make the most of personal experience, knowledge, skills;
• do not resort to premature, hasty formulations;
• putting forward ideas, use analogies, metaphors, inversion, elements of the game, reasoning aloud;
• analyze an object from different positions: external and internal, scientific and everyday, in various situations.

5. Method 635. A group of six participants analyzes and formulates a given (problem) situation. Each participant enters into the form three proposals for solving the problem (within 5 minutes) and passes the form to a neighbor. The filling form takes note of the proposals of its predecessor, and under them in three fields enters three more of its own proposals. These proposals may be used in the further development of recorded solutions, but new ones may be put forward. The process ends when the participants have processed all the forms. Conditions: the recommended number of participants is 6. The time for the rotational phase may increase in subsequent phases. The technology allows you to receive up to 108 (6 x 3 x 6) offers.

6. Delphi Method. Externally, the method is implemented as a multi-level questionnaire procedure with processing and reporting the results of each round to experts working in isolation from each other. They are offered questions and formulations of answers without argumentation. For example, responses may contain numeric parameter estimates. The obtained estimates are processed in order to obtain the average and extreme estimates. The experts are informed of the results of processing the first round of the survey, indicating the location of the assessments of each. If the assessment deviates from the average value, the expert argues it.

Later (in the second round), the experts change their assessment, explaining the reasons for the adjustment. The results are processed and reported to experts. If the estimates deviate from the average value, the experts comment on them. Rounds are repeated until scores are stable.

An iterative questioning procedure with the communication of the results of processing and their reasoning encourages experts to critically reflect on their judgments. During the survey, the anonymity of the experts' answers is preserved, which excludes conformism (the suppression of one opinion by another, more authoritative one).

Techniques for individual work

1. Reception "Waiting for inspiration". When solving difficult problems, when it is not possible to concentrate efforts, it is advisable to alternate intense intellectual work with relaxation, disconnecting consciousness from the task. Before going to sleep, however, you should re-remember the task and think about it until you fall asleep. In the morning or even at night, sometimes unconsciously, waking up, you can get up and solve a difficult problem. The technique is based on "drowsy states" that occur during the period of falling asleep (E. Coue's method) and allow you to "set tasks" for your brain. Psychotechnology takes into account that with the transition to natural sleep and the “turning off” of consciousness, the unconscious of a person is, as it were, programmed to solve some important (actual) task.

2. Thinking technology: "Mettchet's method". It is recommended to use the following "thinking modes" to create, control and apply a way of thinking when solving a problem:

• strategic schemes (act in accordance with the strategy, create it);
• images (represent the problem in the form of diagrams, drawings);
• in parallel planes (observe your thoughts while they are crossing);
• from different points of view;
• in the main elements (options for decisions, judgments, concepts, tactics, relationships, obstacles).

The technology can be used to organize the individual thinking of the decision maker, as well as to improve the efficiency of his collaboration with the staff.

3. Analytical technique: "Method of eliminating hopeless situations". Using this method, it is possible to model the acceptance of various management decisions, consistently excluding factors leading to undesirable predictable consequences. This is achieved by varying solutions: adapt, modify, strengthen, weaken, replace, redo, combine, use something differently.